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Volume 16
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Article

Three-Dimensional Printed Hybrid Scaffolds with Layered Polycaprolactone/Nanosized Smectic Clay Nanocomposite and Chitosan/Collagen/Demineralized Bone Powder Hydrogels Targeting Osteochondral Tissue Engineering

by
Thiago Ferreira Cândido Lima Verde
1,
Matheus Ribeiro Viana
1,
André Sales Aguiar Furtado
1,
Guilherme de Castro Brito
1,
Manuel Henrique de Sousa Cunha
1,
Livia Alves Filgueiras
2,
Anderson Nogueira Mendes
2,
Fernanda Roberta Marciano
3,
Caio Moreira de Souza
4,
Thiago Domingues Stocco
4,* and
Anderson Oliveira Lobo
1,*
1
Interdisciplinary Laboratory for Advanced Materials, Materials Science & Engineering Graduate Program, Federal University of Piauí, Teresina 64049-550, Brazil
2
Laboratory of Innovation in Science and Technology, Department of Biophysics and Physiology, Federal University of Piauí, Teresina 64049-550, Brazil
3
Department of Physics, Federal University of Piaui, Teresina 64049-550, Brazil
4
Bioengineering Program, Scientific and Technological Institute, Brasil University, São Paulo 08230-030, Brazil
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Funct. Biomater. 2025, 16(12), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb16120441
Submission received: 26 August 2024 / Revised: 7 July 2025 / Accepted: 17 November 2025 / Published: 26 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced 3D Printing Biomaterials)
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study addresses the challenges of osteochondral tissue engineering by developing a hybrid scaffold with intercalated layers of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) in combination with different concentrations of nanosized synthetic smectic clay (Lap) and a hydrogel of chitosan, collagen and demineralized bone powder (DBP). The scaffold design specifically targets the critical junction between subchondral bone and calcified cartilage and utilizes the mechanical strength of PCL/Lap nanocomposites and the bioactivity of the chitosan/collagen/DBP hydrogel to support tissue regeneration. The PCL/Lap nanocomposite, characterized by increased hydrophilicity, improved swelling behavior, and enhanced stiffness, provides a robust scaffold, while the hydrogel layers improve bioactivity and fluid retention. Three-dimensional printing technology was used to fabricate multi-layer scaffold, ensuring interfacial cohesion between the layers. Rheological, morphological, chemical, and mechanical characterizations confirmed the successful integration of the materials and the mechanical suitability for the subchondral environment. Biocompatibility assays demonstrated the non-hemolytic nature of the scaffolds and a favorable trend in cell viability with increasing Lap content. This study presents a novel scaffold design that effectively combines mechanical stability and biological functionality. It fulfills the complex requirements of osteochondral repair and offers a promising platform for future tissue engineering strategies.
Keywords: tissue engineering; nanocomposites; 3d printing; hydrogels; articular cartilage; bone tissue engineering; nanocomposites; 3d printing; hydrogels; articular cartilage; bone

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MDPI and ACS Style

Cândido Lima Verde, T.F.; Viana, M.R.; Furtado, A.S.A.; de Castro Brito, G.; de Sousa Cunha, M.H.; Filgueiras, L.A.; Mendes, A.N.; Marciano, F.R.; de Souza, C.M.; Stocco, T.D.; et al. Three-Dimensional Printed Hybrid Scaffolds with Layered Polycaprolactone/Nanosized Smectic Clay Nanocomposite and Chitosan/Collagen/Demineralized Bone Powder Hydrogels Targeting Osteochondral Tissue Engineering. J. Funct. Biomater. 2025, 16, 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb16120441

AMA Style

Cândido Lima Verde TF, Viana MR, Furtado ASA, de Castro Brito G, de Sousa Cunha MH, Filgueiras LA, Mendes AN, Marciano FR, de Souza CM, Stocco TD, et al. Three-Dimensional Printed Hybrid Scaffolds with Layered Polycaprolactone/Nanosized Smectic Clay Nanocomposite and Chitosan/Collagen/Demineralized Bone Powder Hydrogels Targeting Osteochondral Tissue Engineering. Journal of Functional Biomaterials. 2025; 16(12):441. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb16120441

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cândido Lima Verde, Thiago Ferreira, Matheus Ribeiro Viana, André Sales Aguiar Furtado, Guilherme de Castro Brito, Manuel Henrique de Sousa Cunha, Livia Alves Filgueiras, Anderson Nogueira Mendes, Fernanda Roberta Marciano, Caio Moreira de Souza, Thiago Domingues Stocco, and et al. 2025. "Three-Dimensional Printed Hybrid Scaffolds with Layered Polycaprolactone/Nanosized Smectic Clay Nanocomposite and Chitosan/Collagen/Demineralized Bone Powder Hydrogels Targeting Osteochondral Tissue Engineering" Journal of Functional Biomaterials 16, no. 12: 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb16120441

APA Style

Cândido Lima Verde, T. F., Viana, M. R., Furtado, A. S. A., de Castro Brito, G., de Sousa Cunha, M. H., Filgueiras, L. A., Mendes, A. N., Marciano, F. R., de Souza, C. M., Stocco, T. D., & Lobo, A. O. (2025). Three-Dimensional Printed Hybrid Scaffolds with Layered Polycaprolactone/Nanosized Smectic Clay Nanocomposite and Chitosan/Collagen/Demineralized Bone Powder Hydrogels Targeting Osteochondral Tissue Engineering. Journal of Functional Biomaterials, 16(12), 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb16120441

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