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Volume 16
Issue 12
10.3390/info16121019
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Soil–Water–Air (SWA) Interface Channel Model for River Bridge Pillar Health Monitoring Using WSN

by
Hitesh Panda
1,*,
Roopesh Ramesh
2,
Saranya Subbaiyan
3,
Swamy Thimmaiah Nagendra
2,
Manoranjan Das
1 and
Benudhar Sahu
1
1
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar 751030, Odisha, India
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Dr. Ambedkar Institute of Technology, Bengaluru 560056, Karnataka, India
3
Department of Mathematics, BMS Institute of Technology & Management, Bengaluru 560119, Karnataka, India
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Information 2025, 16(12), 1019; https://doi.org/10.3390/info16121019 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 20 September 2025 / Revised: 6 November 2025 / Accepted: 11 November 2025 / Published: 23 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pervasive Computing in IoT, 2nd Edition)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Wireless sensor networks are installed beneath the earth’s surface to track and assess the condition of the below-ground structures. In these systems, buried sensor nodes identify structural anomalies and transmit the sensed information through both soil and air to a sink node located above the ground. In a river-bridge-pillar-monitoring setup, the sensor node located at the pillar’s base sends signals that propagate through soil, water, and air before being received by the sink positioned beneath the bridge. This signal transmission involves transmission through soil, water, and air media. The transmission of signals through soil, water, and air media is yet to be explored through a defined channel model. This study introduces a channel model where the signal traverses through soil, water, and air, and derives an analytical formulation to represent the associated path loss. In addition, experimental validation of the obtained analytical path-loss was conducted using a LoRa setup. It was observed from analytical and experimental results that soil depth and water level individually affect the path loss significantly. This severe attenuation needs to be addressed before the actual deployment of the network.
Keywords: wireless sensor network; underwater; reflection; path loss; refraction; LoRa; underground wireless sensor network; underwater; reflection; path loss; refraction; LoRa; underground

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MDPI and ACS Style

Panda, H.; Ramesh, R.; Subbaiyan, S.; Nagendra, S.T.; Das, M.; Sahu, B. Soil–Water–Air (SWA) Interface Channel Model for River Bridge Pillar Health Monitoring Using WSN. Information 2025, 16, 1019. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16121019

AMA Style

Panda H, Ramesh R, Subbaiyan S, Nagendra ST, Das M, Sahu B. Soil–Water–Air (SWA) Interface Channel Model for River Bridge Pillar Health Monitoring Using WSN. Information. 2025; 16(12):1019. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16121019

Chicago/Turabian Style

Panda, Hitesh, Roopesh Ramesh, Saranya Subbaiyan, Swamy Thimmaiah Nagendra, Manoranjan Das, and Benudhar Sahu. 2025. "Soil–Water–Air (SWA) Interface Channel Model for River Bridge Pillar Health Monitoring Using WSN" Information 16, no. 12: 1019. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16121019

APA Style

Panda, H., Ramesh, R., Subbaiyan, S., Nagendra, S. T., Das, M., & Sahu, B. (2025). Soil–Water–Air (SWA) Interface Channel Model for River Bridge Pillar Health Monitoring Using WSN. Information, 16(12), 1019. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16121019

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