From Knowledge to Action in Tackling Energy Poverty: The Role of European Postgraduate Programs in Energy Equity

Abstract

Education can play a pivotal role in the eradication of energy poverty by facilitating the transfer of knowledge and skills to all interested stakeholders whilst also promoting the adoption of sustainable energy solutions. In the context of this paper, a comprehensive review of European master’s programs related to energy poverty is carried out, resulting in the identification of approximately of 100 programs across seven European countries that either explicitly or implicitly address the topic. In most cases, energy poverty is embedded in a broader academic discipline—such as energy systems, renewable energy, or sustainable development—rather than being treated as a standalone field. In Europe, the United Kingdom, France, Greece, and Romania were singled out as the leading contributors to energy poverty education. Within the framework of the EU-funded project “MSc in Energy Poverty Alleviation Technologies”, implemented in collaboration with South African universities, this study focuses on South Africa, which represents a characteristic example of a country facing high levels of energy poverty and significant inequalities in energy access. This work highlights the critical need for targeted academic curricula specifically designed to bridge the persistent gap between academic research and its real-world applications, particularly in regions of the world where such integration is most urgent. It also emphasizes the essential role of linking STEM education with the social and humanitarian sciences. Finally, this work underscores the need for interdisciplinary approaches that connect energy poverty alleviation and education by additionally expanding the research and documentation of relevant good initiatives from Asia (China).

1. Introduction: The Academic Response to Energy Poverty Alleviation

Energy transition presupposes that equal access to affordable and sustainable energy is safeguarded. However, this is hindered by a series of geopolitical crises, which, along with persistent climate change, result in high energy costs. This is particularly evident in places where a strong reliance on traditional fuels and weak support mechanisms and policies co-exist. It is a fact that energy equity disproportionately affects low-income households and marginalized communities, thus not only exacerbating their existing inequalities but also hindering their future prospects for development. This is also strongly pinpointed in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in which this is related to Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG7), Exacerbation of Poverty (SDG1), and Reduced Inequalities (SDG10).

Energy poverty alleviation is a complex socio-economic issue, with geography-specific characteristics. It is associated with low income, poor housing, inefficient heating systems, and high energy prices, making its alleviation challenging to both comprehend and address. This is the reason that energy poverty has attracted vast attention, not only in Europe but also across the entire world. Overall, and despite some minor variations in the definition from country to country, energy poverty is commonly perceived as the “inability of individuals or households to afford adequate heating during winter or cooling during summer”. In seeking to measure the extent and intensity of energy poverty, as well as its implications, several indicators have been developed along the years, with the most predominant being the 10% rule indicator, which describes “the state of a household as energy poor if it spends more than 10% of its annual income on energy bills” [1]. Furthermore, notable initiatives, either private and/or at state-level, have been implemented as a response to energy poverty: the WELLBASED project developed and applied urban interventions across six pilot sites with the aim of promoting the adoption of integrated programs that address energy poverty, with a specific emphasis on health as a cross-cutting concern [2].

Energy poverty is most prevalent in low-income households and rural areas of developing countries: for instance, households without electricity often rely on biomass for cooking and heating, such as wood or charcoal, which is firstly an inefficient source. Moreover, and most importantly, only relying on heating with biomass may cause respiratory problems that disproportionately affect women and children [3]. However, it is worth noting that energy poverty also affects a significant number of people across different income bands on a global scale. This can be proved by looking back at EU statistics of 2023 [4]: approximately 40 million Europeans across all member states, representing 9.3% of the Union’s population, were unable to keep their home adequately warm in 2022. That is a sharp increase in the percentage of the population in 2021, 6.9%.

The International Energy Agency (IEA), investigating the sub-Saharan Africa region, reported that the number of people without access to modern energy increased by 4% from 2019 to 2021. This percentage is quite high, considering that approximately 1.1 billion people in rural areas lack access to electricity. Additionally, the electrification rate is at a significantly low level of 45%, whereas the corresponding rate in Asian countries is 94% [5,6]. The World Health Organisation (WHO) also reports that approximately 58% of health facilities in the sub-Saharan region lack electricity [7].

Considering the large percentage of the population whose quality of life is affected by energy poverty, and as argued above, the significant barriers that are posed to reaching the United Nations’ SDGs, it is widely understood that immediate action should be taken. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the targets related to the SDGs may remain unrealized unless global electrification rates are improved. A high-probabilistic scenario forecast indicates that 660 million people worldwide will lack access to electricity by 2030, underscoring the need to implement strategies for addressing electricity inaccessibility [8].

Addressing energy poverty requires a holistic and multidimensional approach, as there are several interrelated contributing factors: insufficient household income, high energy prices, deprived dwelling quality, lack of efficient and clean energy supply, limited integration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and related technologies. Therefore, a series of coordinated actions are imperative; at first, it is essential to design and retrofit energy-efficient dwellings. This will ensure year-round thermal comfort by minimizing energy needs for both heating and cooling. Improving households’ energy efficiency and expanding sustainable energy infrastructure to underserved areas is also critical for avoiding environmental degradation. In this context, investment in RES, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, offers the dual benefit of providing clean energy and simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions and anthropogenic pollutants that are both harmful to health and to the environment. However, in South Africa, the share of primary energy from renewable energy sources was only slightly above 3% in 2024, in a region that struggles not only with poverty but with the reliability of electricity supply, compared to the global portion of 14.5% [9]. Additionally, approximately 82.1% of the local electricity is produced by coal, while the global average stands at 34.2% [10].

Furthermore, when considering biomass—whether of woody origin or derived from crop residues and animal manure—it should be recognized that, although part of it (particularly agricultural residues) aligns with the principles of the circular economy, the uncontrolled combustion of non-certified woody biomass in domestic fireplaces and stoves may cause health and environmental impacts comparable to those of fossil fuels.

Access to clean fuels and technologies reduces exposure to indoor air pollutants, which are a leading cause of severe health issues in low-income households [11]. Consequently, policymakers are tasked with implementing strategies that ensure that energy is affordable for all, possibly through subsidies or financial assistance programs targeting low-income households. Reliable electricity access and supply are vital for achieving social and economic growth, as highlighted in SDG 7, which calls for universal access to modern, sustainable, accessible, and affordable energy by 2030 [3].

Electricity is indispensable at the household level, as it powers the majority of primary activities (like cooking and cooling), and secondary uses (such as radio, television, and other domestic appliances). During nighttime hours, electricity remains critical for providing lighting, ensuring household security, and enabling the continuation of routine activities such as studying or working or engaging in leisure activities. Improving access to energy helps alleviate energy poverty and serves as a key method of addressing it through international policy interventions [12], while the main challenge lies in the fact that electricity prices remain significantly high, thus rendering energy services unaffordable for low-income households.

As previously mentioned, many households still depend on traditional and unsustainable energy sources, like wood, charcoal or animal manure to meet their everyday needs such as cooking and heating. Hence, pollution from these sources increases and the combination of the use of other local fuels may cause respiratory, long-term diseases. These diseases, in some parts of the world, are responsible for 1.5 million deaths per year (both mothers and children [13]). However, the lack of standard practices to meet a household’s basic energy needs and the limited and unreliable electricity supply further challenge countries that are already facing significant difficulties, like those in sub-Saharan Africa, to meet the SDG goals by 2030 [14,15].

Knowledge-based barriers are equally important when examining energy transition pathways and policies. Appropriate knowledge of energy production and related technologies can empower households to manage their energy demands more effectively, improve their consumption patterns, and, to some extent, alleviate the burden of energy poverty. Of course, as in all fields, international cooperation and support are necessary, guided by international organizations and experts who can play a significant role in facilitating knowledge exchange and the communication of best practices. For example, community-based initiatives, actively involving local populations in planning and implementing energy projects, tend to be more successful, as they are tailored to local needs.

Additionally, the recent economic crisis in Europe has further stressed the energy poverty landscape. The COVID-19 pandemic and the Ukrainian–Russian conflict led to a constant increase in inflation, driving up energy prices and intensifying energy poverty levels. Power purchases have also been affected by both crises. As proved by the latest statistics, the countries with the largest share of the population unable to keep their homes sufficiently warm in 2020 were Bulgaria (27%), Lithuania (23%), Cyprus (21%), Portugal and Greece at 17% [16,17]. The study by Carfora et al. [18] showed that the adverse effects of the pandemic will revert at significantly low rates, until at least 2025, with considerable differences between various European countries, therefore widening the gap between countries with low and high levels of energy poverty. To address this emerging issue, the European Union (EU) has initiated several policy initiatives and published two recommendations, EU/2020/1563 and EU/2023/2407, to guide the standardization in definitions and measurements [19].

Universities play a key role in driving the energy transition by integrating sustainability, energy efficiency and energy poverty into their curricula, thereby helping students to build the knowledge and awareness needed to face today’s energy challenges. They also engage a large human capital, a capital that is necessary to identify, design and implement targeted solutions and initiatives so as to alleviate energy poverty. Additionally, by analysing the broader social, economic and environmental impacts of energy poverty, they provide policymakers with comprehensive insights to improve existing policies and governance measures. For instance, economists and environmental scientists may collaborate to develop policies that balance economic growth and environmental sustainability. Public health experts might collaborate with engineers to design energy solutions that minimize health risks. Social justice advocates can partner with political scientists to push for equitable energy policies. Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) also play a critical role in the field of technological innovation. Both engineering and technology departments within universities are designed to study and develop new energy-efficient technologies and renewable energy solutions, such as advanced insulation materials and smart home systems, as well as community-based renewable energy projects that reduce dependence on fossil fuels and lower energy costs. By fostering partnerships with industry and government, universities can accelerate the deployment of these technologies in real-world settings.

The contribution of the academic community to the eradication of energy poverty is evident in the ongoing transformation of academic programs in HEIs. These programs are increasingly introducing courses that, either directly or indirectly, address energy poverty and promote related technological solutions.

As is well known, education plays a crucial role in the energy transition, which involves shifting from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources and improving energy efficiency. Appropriate and targeted knowledge fosters awareness, deepens understanding, and helps develop a skilled workforce for emerging jobs. Most importantly, advances in research and innovation enable both the improvement of existing energy solutions, such as wind energy turbines, and increased efficiency, while also facilitating related investments. To better understand the role of education in addressing energy poverty, this work presents a short review of postgraduate programs across various regions. Also, good initiatives related to energy poverty alleviation are highlighted as well. By examining region-specific data, where reliable information is available, the analysis aims to uncover common patterns and insights into how education can eradicate energy poverty. This approach helps identify effective strategies and underscores the importance of implementing educational interventions.

Furthermore, the study emphasizes the importance of developing targeted academic curricula that bridge the gap between research and real-world applications, thereby equipping graduates with the expertise to implement sustainable energy solutions. Thus, in the context of the emerging issue of energy poverty alleviation and the response of the scientific community, this work aims to identify the various postgraduate programs that are offered by European HEIs. This research was conducted within the framework of the EU-funded project “MSc in Energy Poverty Alleviation Technologies”. The analysis offers valuable insights into the current landscape of postgraduate education in sustainable energy, highlighting the importance of aligning academic curricula with the practical needs of the sector. Providing a record of existing postgraduate academic programs in energy poverty is essential for several compelling reasons. As aforementioned, by pursuing a postgraduate program in this field, students can contribute to developing sustainable solutions that ensure affordable and reliable energy to underserved communities, thereby contributing to the improvement of life quality and supporting economic development. Postgraduate programs, in addition, often include policy analysis and development components, enabling students to understand the regulatory and legislative frameworks that drive constructive change. The demand for experts in addressing energy poverty is constantly growing as governments, international agencies, and private sector companies recognize the importance of tackling this issue.

In summary, researching academic programs related to energy poverty is essential for creating relevant, comprehensive, and impactful educational pathways. They ensure that the latest knowledge, technologies and best practices are effectively addressed to their academic audience. Therefore, this study also ultimately proposes a potential curriculum based on the findings and insights derived from the collected research data.

2. Methodology

Universities operate as hubs of knowledge and capacity building. Master programs are designed in a way to prepare career-ready students. Furthermore, universities have an active role in awareness-raising regarding energy issues, via educational outreach, public engagement and community-based initiatives. Gaining knowledge and skills through these programs creates highly competitive graduates and prospective professionals. A master’s degree provides the capability of conducting research, understanding in depth energy poverty and developing innovative solutions. Academic programs typically offer access to state-of-the-art facilities and opportunities to collaborate with field experts. Energy poverty is a growing field of study with many unanswered questions, providing opportunities for further research.

This section presents an overview of European postgraduate programs related to the broader field of energy poverty. These programs often adopt an interdisciplinary approach encompassing areas such as engineering, economics, environmental science, public health, legislative issues, and social justice, so as to comprehensively address the complex nexus of factors contributing to energy poverty. Accordingly, concepts such as sustainable and renewable energy, energy efficiency and conversion, building design and performance, energy access issues, and equitable energy policies are closely connected within the wider academic field of energy poverty. Many programs incorporate spatial and socio-economic dimensions of energy poverty through dedicated modules on topics such as energy access and poverty, energy justice and policy, sustainability in energy provision and demand management, corporate sustainability strategies and governance, as well as the social aspect of adult education for sustainable development, power politics and society, sustainability and governance, inequality and inclusive growth. In addition, coursework frequently includes renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency measures, and the socio-economic implications of energy policies. Within this context, students learn to analyse and design policies that promote energy equity, such as subsidies for energy-efficient home retrofits, regulations mandating improved energy performance standards, and community-based initiatives aiming at supporting energy-vulnerable populations.

These types of programs incorporate a combination of practical experience, research and collaboration with non-governmental and governmental organizations. In some cases, they also allow students to apply theoretical knowledge into actual real-world scenarios. Considering that Europe is moving towards sustainability, the need to address energy poverty is constantly increasing. The EU Green Deal, as well as national policies, emphasizes the commitment to achieving energy justice by reducing carbon emissions while providing all citizens with access to reliable and affordable renewable energy. Thus, the demand for a workforce with high knowledge on energy poverty-related issues is crucial. Graduates with a master’s degree can play a vital role in shaping policies and implementing solutions for reducing energy poverty.

Conducting research on the existing master’s programs related to energy poverty requires both a systematic and multi-dimensional approach in order to ensure a comprehensive and analytical identification of relevant academic programs. The first stage of this research involves profiling universities based on their research output, institutional commitments, and academic strengths in the intersecting domains of sustainability, social policy, and energy systems. Institutions with established research centers or affiliations in sustainability science and social energy transitions are prioritized, given their higher likelihood of offering specialized postgraduate training in energy poverty.

For that reason, the “Studyportals Masters” database (https://www.mastersportal.com, accessed on 19 July 2024), an online platform listing approximately 26,795 postgraduate programs, was used. The portal was selected for its reliability and high level of comprehensiveness in identifying postgraduate programs in Europe. From its database a targeted and screening search identified 100 master’s programs related to the study and mitigation of energy poverty. In more detail, special focus was given to topics such as energy transition, energy policy, energy efficiency, sustainable development and the social dimensions of energy. Programs were systematically reviewed using the following screening criteria: (1) institution name, (2) country, (3) program name and type, (4) duration, (5) structure, (6) objectives, (7) course topics, (8) tuition and funding information, (9) career outcomes, (10) admission requirements, (11) faculty, (12) alumni network, (13) keywords and (14) URLs. Data collection was conducted during the period of January–June 2024, ensuring that the findings reflect the most up-to-date overview of the European postgraduate landscape in this field.

A crucial element of the methodology is the analysis of curricula including the assessment of course structures, module content, and learning outcomes. Emphasis is given to the integration of interdisciplinary subjects such as energy efficiency, renewable energy technologies, environmental justice, social equity, and policy modelling. In this way, it is ensured that the programs address not only the technical dimensions of energy systems but also the socio-political and economic frameworks essential for a comprehensive understanding of energy poverty. Geospatial orientation is another pivotal criterion; programs are assessed based on their regional and/or global focus. Some curricula are tailored to address context-specific drivers of energy poverty within European territories. In contrast, others adopt a comparative or global development lens, facilitating cross-regional policy learning and exchange.

In the methodology, a review of the admission criteria is included. More specifically, an analysis was made on the academic prerequisites, language competency thresholds, and critical timelines. In this way, it is ensured, that the selected programs are accessible and aligned with candidate qualifications such as prior academic degrees, professional experience, language proficiency, and relevant technical or disciplinary backgrounds. As presented in Figure 1, the proposed methodological steps constitute a coherent framework for identifying postgraduate programs focused on energy poverty within the academic landscape (in our case Europe). By following this approach, replicability and transparency of the procedure for evaluating academic programs is safeguarded, also ensuring that findings can be validated and compared across institutions.

So, summarizing the methodological steps (as shown in Figure 1) we have:

Phase I-Primary Screening: This entails the identification of universities and research institutions that demonstrate substantial research activity in energy studies, environmental science, social policy, and sustainability (this step also presupposes the appropriate selection of a reliable academic search-engine or database for information retrieval, i.e., QS World University Rankings and Times Higher Education, alongside specialized educational platforms like Studyportals and MastersPortal). The final list is further refined by reviewing institutional commitments to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those targeting affordable and clean energy (SDG 7) and reduced inequalities (SDG 10). The outcome of this phase is a shortlist of universities with high potential relevance to energy poverty studies. Subsequently, the institutions are further screened based on their track record in sustainability, focused on research output, policy engagement, and interdisciplinary program offerings.

Phase II-Content Analysis: In the second step, a content analysis of the shortlisted programs is carried out by browsing the official websites of the universities, and particularly departments or faculties focusing on energy, environmental governance, or social policy. At this phase, the scrutiny is directed not toward the authorities but the program content. A crucial criterion is whether the master program is considered as relevant to energy poverty studies, or, more comprehensively, covers related areas, such as sustainable energy, energy policy, environmental justice, or development economics. Then, its curriculum is analysed in terms of thematic relevance; the modules addressing renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency measures, climate policy, equity and access to energy supplies, and socio-economic indicators of energy-based deprivation are selected.

Phase III-Contextual Refinement: In the final step, the programs under study are assessed based on their thematic and geographic specialization in combination, i.e., focus on energy poverty in Europe or beyond. Hence, the relevant topics include analyses of regional case studies and community-based initiatives developed within distinct socio-political and climatic settings. Moreover, academic and practical applicability is ensured by scrutinizing the institutes’ research legitimacy, the faculty’s expertise in energy poverty scholarship, and the participation in EU-sponsored initiatives, like Horizon Europe, IEA, or UNDP projects. Finally, an assessment of the authorities’ credibility, research infrastructure, and the programs’ strategic correspondence with the wider scientific and policy discourse on energy poverty is also performed.

3. Results on MSc Programmes in Europe

Herein below, the findings of the research are listed and analysed. Figure 2 provides a visual overview of how energy poverty is represented (mostly implicitly) across existing postgraduate curricula. Τhe red number has been solely used for visual clarity and to improve the readability of the figure. The different blue tone colors indicate the density of postgraduate programs per country—the darker the blue, the higher the number of programs. As one can observe, relevant programs are unevenly distributed among European countries, with the United Kingdom taking the lead—a logical outcome given that it was the first country to conceptualize and formally introduce the term “energy poverty” in both academic and policy discourse [20,21].

France, Greece, and Romania also offer a considerable number of postgraduate programs aligned with this topic, reflecting a strong academic commitment to addressing energy poverty through education. This approach not only enhances institutional awareness but also helps to inform and influence policy-level decisions.

As mentioned above, the research identified approximately 100 master’s programs associated with “the study and alleviation of energy poverty”. It must be noted that none of these programs explicitly include the term “energy poverty” in their MSc titles. As the findings indicate (to the best author’s knowledge), currently there is no master program entitled and/or dedicated exclusively to energy poverty and its technological, policy, and social dimensions. The topic is most often addressed indirectly within broader academic courses—such as energy systems, renewable energy, sustainable development, and energy policy—which provide the foundational knowledge for understanding and addressing energy poverty.

In addition, many programs incorporate the socio-economic and spatial dimensions of energy poverty through dedicated coursework. Such modules include energy access and deprivation, energy justice, policy design and evaluation, and sustainable energy provision and demand-side management. In certain cases, broader discussions on corporate sustainability strategies, governance frameworks, and the political economy of energy transitions also explore issues related to energy poverty.

In some national contexts, such as France, these interdisciplinary and humanistic dimensions are often addressed through academic events, such as conferences, rather than through formal curricula. However, following the enactment of the Climat et Résilience law in 2021 and the release of the Jouzel Report in 2022, the French higher education system has been explicitly mandated to “raise awareness and provide training in the challenges of the ecological transition and sustainable development.” This policy shift is gradually encouraging a more structured integration of sustainability and social dimensions into higher education programs. Furthermore, in France, the alignment with EU goals has created a favorable setting for studying energy poverty. French universities provide comprehensive programs that seek to comprehend the complex nature of energy poverty. The nation’s “progressive approach to sustainable development”, as declared in the “Energy Transition for Green Growth Act”, strongly supports academic programs that integrate environmental sciences, social policy, and economic analysis.

Similarly, interdisciplinary courses across Europe address the social aspects of sustainable development, including adult education for sustainability, power dynamics and social structures, inclusive governance, inequality, and equitable economic growth.

In the UK, universities have a long tradition of studies dealing with energy, social and sustainability topics, in line with the local policy, which strives at reducing energy poverty while advancing environmental and climate goals. Moreover, universities lead national and international initiatives on energy access, fuel poverty, and just transitions, supported by funders like UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) that supports projects that aim at tackling socio-technical energy challenges.

Influenced by Greece’s distinct economic situation (persistent economic crisis) and its reliance on imported energy, Greek master programs focus on energy saving, energy efficiency and renewable energy technology penetration. Particular emphasis is given to the social dimension and the equity for the vulnerable groups and social support in line with the National Energy Action Plan.

Romania represents the Eastern European perspective, where economic disparities and an aging building stock continue to affect energy access. Romanian universities offer programs that combine technical and policy approaches, aiming to enhance energy efficiency and affordability during economic transition. The country’s efforts to align with EU energy directives and strengthen domestic energy security further influence its academic engagement with this issue.

A similar approach is also evident across all European countries; as summarized in

Table 1. Indicative listing of sixteen (16) European MSc programs related to Energy Poverty. ¹

Country	University/Program	Indicative Courses/Modules	Curriculum Focus
United Kingdom	University of Edinburgh—MSc Energy, Society and Sustainability	Energy Justice and Fuel Poverty Energy Policy and Politics Low-Carbon Transitions	Integration of social sciences and energy policy for equitable access
	University College London—MSc Energy Systems and Data Analytics	Smart Energy Systems Energy Demand and Behavior Modelling Energy Access	Data-driven analysis of energy demand, affordability, and policy
	University of Sussex—MSc Energy Policy for Sustainability	Energy Access and Development Policy Modelling Energy Justice	Policy and governance of sustainable energy transitions
France	University of Pau—ASSET (Applied Social Sciences in Energy and Environmental Transitions)	Sociology of Energy Climate Governance Law and Regulation for Energy	Integration of social and technical approaches in sustainability
	École des Mines de Paris—MSc Energy Transition and Climate Policy	Economics of Energy Transition Energy Efficiency Low-Carbon Pathways	Engineering–policy interface for decarbonization
Greece	University of West Attica—MSc Sustainable Energy Systems	Energy Efficiency in Buildings Renewable Energy Energy Economics	Applied training in RES technologies and policy for vulnerable groups
	Aristotle University of Thessaloniki—MSc Energy Building Design	Thermal Comfort and Indoor Quality RES Integration Energy Retrofit	Energy-efficient building design and thermal resilience
	Technical University of Crete—MSc Sustainable Energy Engineering	Energy Systems Optimisation Environmental Management Energy Policy	Interdisciplinary engineering and policy program
Spain	Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (InnoEnergy)—MSc Energy for Smart Cities	Urban Energy Systems Energy Access and Affordability Innovation	Cross-European program on sustainable and inclusive cities
	Universidad de Zaragoza—MSc Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency	Energy Management Environmental Economics RES Systems	Renewable energy and resource-efficient systems
Romania	University Politehnica of Bucharest—MSc Energy and Environmental Management	Energy Efficiency in Buildings Sustainable Infrastructure Systems Analysis	Integration of engineering and policy for infrastructure
	Technical University of Cluj-Napoca—MSc Renewable Energy Systems	Electrical Systems Energy Efficiency RES Economics	Engineering focus on efficient and affordable energy
Italy	University of Genoa—MSc Energy Engineering	Energy Planning Renewable Sources and Storage Sustainable Design	Engineering and sustainability approaches
	Politecnico di Milano—MSc Environmental and Land Planning Engineering	Energy and Urban Planning Climate Change Mitigation Smart Cities	Territorial energy planning and low-carbon infrastructure
Germany	Technical University of Berlin—MSc Energy Engineering and Resource Efficiency	Sustainable Energy Systems Efficiency Technologies Energy Economics	Integrated energy systems for sustainability
	RWTH Aachen—MSc Sustainable Energy Supply	Energy Systems Planning Renewable Integration Socio-economic Assessment	Engineering of energy systems with economic evaluation

¹ Note: Data derived from FAIR Deliverable D2.2 “Collection of Relevant Curricula in Europe and South Africa” (pp. 37–172) and official university websites. Program structures show an average of 50% professional involvement and 3–6-month internships.

, the sixteen (16) listed master programs reflect the national educational pathway that each country has adopted for addressing energy poverty, a pathway that is also shaped by the local socio-economic conditions.

The selection of these programs aimed to cover a broad mix of fields—engineering, social sciences, environmental studies, and policy—while also ensuring comprehensive geographical coverage across the EU. The master’s programs reflect how European universities are increasingly embedding the concept of energy poverty and its determinants into their postgraduate teaching and research activities.

As highlighted above, although energy poverty is acknowledged as a serious societal challenge, it has not yet fully emerged as a stand-alone academic discipline at the master’s level within European higher education. Instead, it is embedded within courses’ contexts that broadly deal with sustainable energy transitions, equitable access, and wider socio-economic implications. This integration highlights the multidimensional nature of energy poverty.

The development of dedicated master programs requires scientists to connect STEM fields with social sciences and humanities. The social sciences enable researchers to study inequalities and policy effects and public attitudes through their analytical methods. The humanities examine how cultural elements, ethical standards and personal values influence public understanding of energy sustainability and justice. The combination of these fields creates a comprehensive framework for studying energy poverty [22].

The University of Pau in France operates the Graduate School for Energy and Environmental Innovation (GREEN), which delivers the Master’s program ASSET (Applied Social Sciences in Energy and Environmental Transitions) [23]. The national excellence initiative Investissements d’Avenir established the ASSET program at the University of Pau to develop sustainability and education through social and technical scientific integration. The program defines its purpose by demonstrating the necessity of interdisciplinary work between different academic fields to develop practical solutions for modern energy and climate problems. The ASSET program demonstrates how social science expertise enables effective energy transition management through its combination of energy science with economics, geography, law and sociology.

Interdisciplinary approaches that bridge the historical gap between STEM and the humanities in energy education are also important in the UK. According to a 2023 report by the Higher Education Policy Institute, “the only way to solve the many challenges facing society” is to better connect STEM and humanities disciplines [20]. The report identifies the drive towards net-zero emissions as a case in point, illustrating how technological innovation must be complemented by social insight and ethical awareness. This philosophy is reflected in the MSc programs offered by British universities, such as the University of Edinburgh’s MSc in Energy, Society, and Sustainability, which welcomes students from both social science and natural science backgrounds. The curriculum provides a balanced exploration of the societal dimensions of energy, alongside low-carbon technology and policy analysis, enabling graduates to approach energy transition challenges from multiple perspectives.

The academic field becomes more diverse because students receive multiple educational approaches which prepare them to handle energy poverty effectively. The initiatives align with EU-wide policies including the Clean Energy for All Europeans package, which supports collaborative development of innovative solutions throughout Europe. The programs collaborate to achieve energy justice and sustainability through their combined efforts to teach students both technical and socio-economic competencies.

Figure 3 below illustrates that the academic domains of renewable energy, engineering, and environmental sciences shape the academic discourses and dimensions that contribute significantly to the understanding of the phenomenon of energy poverty. These sources of inspiration, therefore, provide a fundamental theoretical framework, along with technological solutions, and policy recommendations for the sustainable design and implementation of energy systems that are accessible to all citizens.

The renewable energy domain, a sub-specialization of mechanical engineering, focuses on the harnessing and conversion of solar, wind, hydro, and biomass resources into clean, reliable, and sustainable energy. Its two main goals are the development and testing of various emerging renewable energy technologies and finally the optimal design, performance, and cost analysis of the existing systems. In parallel, the field contributes strategically to the widespread adoption of renewable energy through policy design based on knowledge, engagement with stakeholders, and initiatives aiming at enhancing the reach of policy making beyond infrastructural, regulatory, and social issues, especially in energy-poor regions.

Engineering in general, the second major domain involved in energy poverty alleviation, is loosely defined. It combines several sub-disciplines, such as electrical, civil, mechanical, and systems engineering, to provide comprehensive solutions within the entire energy value chain. Solutions may range from decentralized energy systems and smart-grid investments to efficient energy storage and implementation of low-cost transmission infrastructure and innovative improvements. A broad multi-disciplinary engineering approach guarantees that technological solutions are context-relevant, reach scale and are structurally sound to satisfy the multiple demands and constraints of urban and rural dwellers afflicted by energy poverty.

Another key discipline is environmental science, which evaluates the ecological impact of energy generation and advocates sustainable measures. This component’s primary objective is to prevent environmental deterioration through the utilization of renewable sources of energy and the responsible use of other resources. It also involves the assessment of environmental impacts when new projects are launched, as well as the appropriate management of land and water resources mobilized to generate energy.

Electrical engineering deals with the generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical power. The fundamental priority is to form reliable and efficient energy supply systems, including smart grids and other initiatives within the scope of renewable energy. This discipline typically involves the planning and execution of smart grid technologies and the creation of affordable electrical systems to integrate renewable and battery-operated systems. Mechanical engineering similarly helps to decrease environmental stress and create energy-efficient systems while minimizing manufacturing and operational expenses.

The fields of biotechnology and health sciences also have a prominent space within the wider context of energy poverty study. These disciplines examine the health effects of the applied technologies and help promote environmentally and socially conscious methods of energy production and consumption. Lastly, civil engineering, business and economics are indispensable too in reducing energy poverty.

Civil engineering provides the necessary infrastructures for energy systems, including powerplants, transmission lines, and distribution networks, preserving their structural integrity and resilience against both natural and technical disasters. Business and economics, in turn, provide the financial and regulatory backing to make energy accessible to all. They both look into market competition, create financial incentives, and develop policy-making and governance models supporting the investment in sustainable energy infrastructure. Moreover, economists have developed many energy models designed to reduce the price of energy for the benefit of all socioeconomic segments.

Over the last few years, computer science has become a rapidly growing scientific field in the fight against energy poverty. With its advanced data analytics, artificial intelligence, and the Internet of Things, it enables the creation of intelligent energy systems. More precisely, thanks to the advanced algorithms used in all of the abovementioned technologies, it is possible to ensure the optimal operation of the energy production, distribution, and consumption systems. They minimize energy waste and eliminate the instances of potential energy shortages by analysing the behaviour of these systems. More specifically, predictive analytics helps forecast the demand and enables the system to respond accordingly, thus distinguishing the vulnerable populations’ needs.

Finally, energy poverty cannot be considered separately from a broader issue of social justice, especially in developing countries. Therefore, it is critical to understand what type of changes are required in end-users’ behaviour and lifestyle to form sustainable energy policies for society in general. An interdisciplinary approach that combines engineering and economics with computer science and social sciences is the most suitable option for developing inclusive and efficient energy solutions. Given the data presented above and the disciplines’ contributions to the fight against energy poverty, it is necessary to compare the disciplines that have overlapping or complementary features. The comparison will help structure the available data and illustrate how different disciplines conceptualize and fight energy poverty to achieve a common goal. The assessment of related disciplines begins with renewable energy and environmental sciences. Indeed, these two fields have much in common, focusing on environmental effects and sustainability. While environmental science examines the ecological implications of renewable energy, renewable energy provides the means to practically apply these technologies in practice.

A further comparison can be drawn between chemical engineering, biotechnology, and health sciences. While chemical engineering develops energy storage and conversion solutions such as batteries, electrolyzers or fuel cells, biotechnology and health sciences explore the consequences of these technologies on human and environmental health and design sustainable bioenergy alternatives. Chemical engineering offers the technological basis for efficient energy use, while biotechnology and health sciences ensure that the technologies will indeed be sustainable and health-aware. The social sciences and business and economics represent another example of complementary expertise. In this case, although business and economics establish the economic and policy structures for energy systems to deploy and produce a profit, the social sciences estimate how these structures will react with individuals and affect their behavior strategically, promoting social awareness and inclusion. Both are required for implementation. Nonetheless, business and economics consider market functions and investment propositions, whereas the social sciences consider place commitment and social equity. Engineering, finally, is a vast subject. It is also helpful to contrast general and specialized engineering answers. General engineering merges all the engineering opportunities to build system-level solutions, ensuring that every part of the energy system collaborates.

However, branches such as mechanical, electrical, or civil engineering explore specific aspects in more detail. The interaction between total and specialized engineering guarantees both focus and breadth of technological innovation to assist in energy poverty alleviation.

4. Discussion: The Role of Education on a Worldwide Scale

This section presents a critical analysis of the systematic role of education in energy poverty mitigation and sustainable energy transitions. Additionally, it focuses on the ways in which education systemically alleviates energy poverty at a time marginally greater scale, using example cases from China, Portugal, and multiple African regions where education has been utilized as a critical facet of national energy poverty alleviation. This comparative analysis of case examples is useful, as it highlights that educational alleviation measures require a specific socio-economic context and level of economic development to be successful. The findings of this analysis can provide additional substantial insights into how the education system can act as a critical mechanism for energy equity provision and sustainable development. Particular focus is placed on the outcomes of heterogeneity across diverse socio-economic and geographical contexts, as some types of information and behavior change occur more frequently than others. This focus is used to identify occurring patterns, potential contextual limitations, and insights that can be translated into other socio-economic systems.

4.1. China

China, as a representative example of a developing country, is adjusting its higher education to embrace energy transitions. In one of the recent works [23,24], data from 30 Chinese provinces for 2002–2021 are analysed. The researchers report that higher educational levels significantly contribute to reductions in energy poverty in the country, especially in the central and western regions. At the same time, the gender-specific analysis remained significant; the coefficient for female education was higher than for male education, even though the difference was minor [25]. As the authors claim, the importance of addressing income disparities and gender-based educational inequalities was identified. Thus, policy recommendations that focus on educational measures to increase access to knowledge and gender equality are important for the comprehensive understanding of the energy poverty matter in developing countries.

Another study from the same region used data from the China Family Panel Survey to examine the long-run effects of China’s 1986 Compulsory Education Act [26] on energy poverty. The authors showed that an additional year of education decreased the likelihood of energy poverty by 2.3%. Thus, from an academic point of view, specific programs that unite research and practice, preparing graduates for the design and implementation of sustainable energy, are necessary. These programs should be supplemented by postgraduate courses to develop the required skills. Moreover, this work contributes to a similar issue but with its own specifics. On the one hand, the problem of energy poverty for China is crucial, as many rural residents and women suffer the most. At this point, the inverted U-shaped relationship between the gender indicator and energy poverty was identified. Rural areas have the highest energy poverty rates, as it is driven by income inequalities and educational asymmetries. To recover, an equitable policy should thus consider improved access to clean energy, even when the supply source is limited.

Overall, the Chinese studies provide evidence that an inclusive educational policy with a gender-specific approach can make a great contribution to social justice. Given the developed European model, there is a solid ground to make a strategic conclusion.

4.2. Portugal

Castro et al. [27] investigated energy poverty and thermal vulnerability in Portuguese higher education students living in private-rented housing. Drawing on a survey of 848 participants from four regions, the authors found consistent thermal discomfort greater than or equal to “sometimes discomfort” during the winter and summer months throughout the country. Displaced students, that is, those detached from their family homes, were found to have higher exposure to energy poverty. Although there were regional differences in the primary drivers of energy poverty, the overall rates of thermal discomfort showed little deviation. The most vulnerable were students from the Alentejo region, primarily due to poor insulation and higher energy prices. The authors concluded that the energy poverty crisis among students requires immediate intervention, with energy efficiency measures as key.

The case of Portugal highlights the social dimension of energy poverty and its intersection with education and housing. It reflects how poverty maybe hidden, even at the primary level of student life. Therefore, social policies and energy efficiency should be promoted so as to improve living conditions and ensure equity.

4.3. Africa

In Africa, the work of Apergis et al. [21] empirically tested the education–energy poverty nexus under the human capital theory framework. They took into consideration the period of 2001–2016 and data from 30 developing countries. The usage of Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) estimator helped to eliminate cross-sectional dependence and endogeneity. The findings suggest that expanding the access to energy sources leads to increased education attainment and literacy levels, while clean energy technologies reduce the learning deficiency. Furthermore, they indicate that these two factors are interconnected and that measures that incorporate energy programs with the educational reforms are crucial for the viable development of human capital, while also contributing to achieving better results in terms of SDG 7 and SDG 4.

Sule et al. [28] investigated the impact of energy poverty on education inequality and infant mortality in thirty-three African countries. The results of their empirical analysis indicated a significant correlation between energy poverty and vital social factors in Africa. Energy poverty is prevalent in African countries and correlates with high child mortality rates and unequal educational opportunities. Having the need to address their electricity supply, low-income households prioritize it over educational costs, preventing their children from learning or developing in the school environment. The policy implications include rural electrification and accessible clean energy sources that are not expensive for all city residents. The present research evidences that only governmental power can achieve social equity, successful educational policy, and children’s health.

In another study, Sy et al. [29] proposed an alternative framework for assessing energy poverty in Senegal, distinguishing four types of households: extreme, moderate, transitional, and non-poor. The main results demonstrated a steady fall in the level of energy poverty every year from 2015 to 2019; however, in one of the most advantageous scenarios, almost half of the local citizens continued to experience moderate deprivation. The authors emphasized that the absence of a specific classification system ensures the absence of an individual approach. Also, possible solutions should call on the government to consider modern energy service accessibility as a priority for all planned socio-economic activities.

Finally, Makate [30] analysed the effects of the education reform in Zimbabwe in 1980 and showed that this reform reduced energy poverty by 8.56%. The results revealed that the reform increased the average schooling by 2.08 years, with first-order gains reported for women and the rural energy-poor, among other groups. The educational improvements further facilitated favourable labour market outcomes and household wealth and confirmed access to modern energy. The findings highlighted the vital role of education in enhancing gender equality and suggested policymakers incorporate educational reform with energy development as a long-lasting energy poverty reduction strategy. Overall, the evidence from African countries confirms that education can play a critical role in reducing energy poverty and promoting social inclusion, where it is most needed.

Recapitulating, the analysis of European, Asiatic, and African case-studies proved the multi-dimensional link between education and energy poverty. Policies such as the elimination of the differences between urban and rural areas and the implementation of gender-inclusive policies appeared to successfully diminish energy poverty in China. The Portuguese experience demonstrated a strong connection between energy poverty, the quality of housing, and the welfare of students. In this case, the academic achievements of disadvantaged children may substantially benefit from additional federal funding, which enhances front-end investments in energy renovation. The evidence from African countries confirms that education and contemporary energy are two mutually reinforcing variables; for example, the spread of education as a result of village electrification leads to social inclusion but also helps in reducing the number of pathologies caused by fuelwood combustion. Overall, the European educational-based approach is supported by other nations that have successfully enhanced social inclusion and equity.

5. Conclusions

Tackling energy poverty in Europe and across the world is imperative, as the phenomenon affects public health, social equity, environmental sustainability, and economic resilience. First and foremost, energy consumption is essential for leading a decent life, and addressing energy poverty helps to eliminate socio-economic disparities, improve social inclusion, and reduce the burden on social support programs. By ensuring increased sustainability and predictability, a more cohesive and fair society can be created while also guaranteeing everyone’s rightful access to affordable and reliable energy supply. From an environmental perspective, addressing energy poverty can also assist Europe in achieving its climate goals, also in line with EU Green Deal aiming at climate neutrality by 2050. Improving household energy efficiency and increasing the utilization of renewable energy sources ultimately contributes to the dual challenge of environmental and social sustainability.

Economically, addressing energy poverty stimulates consumer spending and stabilises public finances. Increased disposable income and investments in energy efficiency stimulate economic growth, create jobs, and enhance social stability by protecting vulnerable groups from rising energy costs. Apart from the environmental and economic arguments, energy poverty has vast social and political repercussions. Social unrest largely leads to a lack of faith in the country’s institutions. By addressing energy poverty, European governments could set realistic expectations while at the same time substantially reducing the risk of instability.

Thus, given the multiplicity of fields and realms covered by energy poverty, including techno- and socio-economic, political and environmental considerations, long-term and comprehensive solutions to the problem can only be developed within an academic environment. By working in multidisciplinary teams spanning engineering, public policy, environmental sciences, and social and economic justice, future specialists will be equipped to address the complex challenges of ensuring universal and equitable access to affordable energy in both developed and developing contexts. While the European academic community has made substantial progress in terms of raising awareness and educating young professionals on the specifics of energy poverty, the findings of this paper suggest that further efforts are required toward the formalisation of postgraduate programs and related curricula. More specifically, new academic offerings in this field should be designed to more effectively bridge the gap between theoretical research and practical implementation, incorporating a variety of applied components alongside available theoretical research.

The analysis of European postgraduate programs demonstrates the increasing recognition of energy poverty as an essential part of sustainable energy education even though it has not become an independent academic discipline. Instead, it is incorporated in the broader frames of renewable energy, environmental policy, and sustainable development. The variations among the national trends of energy poverty integration, (UK, France, Greece, and Romania) testify to the increased academic and policy concern of Europe. The synthesis confirms the need for a structured and interdisciplinary course that combines knowledge in engineering, environmental science, economics, and social policy. This synthesis will allow students to gain a holistic perspective on the technological, social, and moral background of energy inequality. Regardless of the European findings, case studies from China and several African countries reveal significant evidence of the interconnection between education and energy poverty alleviation. The Chinese education reforms and women-inclusive policy had a positive impact on the improvement of household energy deprivation, especially in rural areas, while Africa prefers a combination of education access with the provision of clean energy to ensure mutual positive influence on social inclusion and health and human capital development.

Put together, these examples recall the decisive role of education in sustainable and equal energy transformation. Developing interdisciplinary courses that give much consideration to energy poverty and its implications will contribute to forming the next generation of professionals. Finally, based on the evidence and outcomes of the research, a potential curriculum can be suggested. The curriculum synthesizes key areas of knowledge and skills essential for supporting sustainable energy transitions, focusing on energy poverty. It includes foundational courses such as Introduction to Research Methodology and Fundamentals of Sustainable Energy, which establish a baseline understanding of energy systems and scientific inquiry. Building on this, specialized modules like Energy Economics and Geopolitics, Capitalising RES Investments in Local Markets, and Climate, Energy, and Justice explore the socio-political, financial, and ethical dimensions of the energy landscape. Technical competence is further enhanced through courses such as Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems and Energy Storage, Improvement of Buildings Energy Efficiency, Advanced Renewable Energy Technologies, and Sustainable Fuels and Transportation. The inclusion of Tackling Global-Local Challenges in Ethics ensures that students are equipped to navigate the moral and societal implications of energy decisions. The proposed curriculum not only supports interdisciplinary and practice-oriented learning but can also be considered as a model for developing educational programs aiming to equip students with all the necessary skills.