On Intermediality of the Medicine Sutras and Their Imagery During the Sui Dynasty at Dunhuang

Abstract

Despite being the most popular sutra tableau in Dunhuang, the utter lack of any comprehensive, or chronological academic analysis even in Chinese calls for a thorough research on the Medicine Buddha Sutra iconography at Dunhuang. This paper will explore the Medicine Buddha both in the literary form, the sutras, and the visual form, the sutra tableaux, when they first appeared in China during the Sui Dynasty. First, the relevant sections of the four Medicine Buddha Sutra translated in Chinese will be examined in detail. Then, the earliest four pictorial representations, namely Caves 417, 433, 436, and 394 at Dunhuang, will be scrutinized to establish a firm foundation of this said sutra tableau for later periods. By comparing the deities, and other special attributes presented in these images with what were recorded in the sutras, this paper reveals how the anonymous monastics and artists “re-presented” the Medicine Buddha from literary form to pictorial form, which embodies the intermediallity during the Sui Dynasty in Dunhuang. After analyzing how the textual elements such as the Medicine Buddha, attendant Bodhisattvas, Twelve Demigods, Four Heavenly Kings, and the magical life-prolonging instruments were depicted in the paintings, intermediality between the texts and imagery is brought to light. Two most decisive details, the small sizes of the cartouches for the inscriptions of the Twelve Demigods, and the number of Medicine statues that should be present at the ritual, clearly show the Medicine Buddha Sutra imagery painted during the Sui Dynasty in Dunhuang is based on the earliest Chinese edition, Sutra on the Initiation to Remove Unwholesome Deeds and Attain Salvation from Birth and Death Taught by the Buddha, translated by Śrīmitra.

1. Introduction

There are currently 113 surviving Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux at Dunhuang Grottos, including four from the Sui Dynasty (581–619), 1 from the Early Tang Dynasty, 3 from the High Tang Dynasty, 22 from the Middle Tang Dynasty, 32 from the Late Tang Dynasty, 32 from the Five Dynasties (907–979), 9 from the Song Dynasty (960–1279), and 10 from the Western Xia Dynasty (1038–1227). Not only does this theme span over five dynasties for nearly 650 years, but it also represents the largest number of such paintings preserved at Dunhuang.

Academic research on Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux, in addition to the history of Medicine Buddha Sutra research (H. Wang 2004), can be broadly divided into the following categories: 1. Texts (Xu 2014; M. Wang 2014; Yang 2014; Fang 2014, 2015, 2016)—(1) the sutra in general; (2) the sutras found in Dunhuang scrolls (Fang 2012; Zhang et al. 2014; Y. Liu 2015); (3) the inscriptions on the murals (H. Wang 1998, 1999). 2. Images—(1) image of the Medicine Buddha in general (Y. Wang 2003; Huo 2011); (2) images of the Medicine Buddhas found in specific locations such as Dunhuang (Luo 1989; Lee 1990; Mi 2013), Sichuan (Hu 1988; Chang 2021; Shi 2014; Fu 2015; Wang and Yu 2022; Chen et al. 2022), and Guanzhong (Bai 2010); (3) the Medicine Buddha imagery overseas (W. Liu 2012); (4) the image of the “Twelve Yakshas” mentioned in the sutra (Xie 2018); (5) images related to music and dance in the scene (Jiang 1990; Sha 2015); (6) the portrayals of the Medicine Buddha ritual (Huang 2017; Chang 2021); and (7) a detailed discussion of the Medicine Buddha tableau in Cave 220 (642CE) (Peng 2025). 3. Beliefs—(1) Medicine Buddha worship from the Sui to the Song dynasties in general (Li 2002; Huang 2017), and Medicine Buddha worship in Dunhuang during the Middle Ages (Dang 2013; Yao 2015). Furthermore, even the most thorough monograph on the iconography of the Medicine Buddha Sutra at Dunhuang, “The Complete Collection of Dunhuang Grottoes, Volume 6, Maitreya Sutra Painting Scroll” (which includes both the Maitreya Sutra Tableaux and the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux), does not make an in-depth study on different editions of the sutras (H. Wang 2002). Since not all translated editions are exact copies of one another, treating all the editions as if they are a uniform one without distinguishing the specific edition does not really make sense. Therefore, this paper will focus on the earliest four pictorial representations of the Medicine Buddha Sutra executed during the Sui Dynasty in Dunhuang to establish a firm foundation of the sutra tableau in question in later periods.

Among the secondary sources mentioned above, there are three papers discussing the Medicine Buddha Tableaux in Dunhuang. Both Luo Huaqing’s 1989 article (Luo 1989) and Lee Yumin’s 1990 paper introduced the Medicine Buddha Tableaux in Dunhuang in general and attributed the earliest translation as the textual reference for the monastics and artists without any detail whereas Peng focused on the Medicine Buddha Tableau in Cave 220 in Dunhuang made after the Sui Dynasty (Peng 2025). Naturally, Peng did not discuss the textual sources for the tableaux made dung the Sui Dynasty since this issue is not within the premise of the research. Therefore, it is all the more relevant to quote pertinent specific textual sections to substantiate the most possible sutra they referenced in the Sui Dynasty at Dunhuang.

The Medicine Buddha Sutra has been translated into five Chinese editions throughout history:

• The Sutra on the Initiation to Remove Unwholesome Deeds and Attain Salvation from Birth and Death Taught by the Buddha (Foshuo guanding bachu guozui shengsi dedujing 佛說灌頂拔除過罪生死得度經) by Śrīmitra 帛尸梨密多 in Eastern Jin Dynasty (東晉 317–420);
• The Medicine Buddha Lapis Lazuli Light Sutra (Yaoshi liuliguang jing 藥師琉璃光經) translated by Huijian 慧簡 in the Liu Song Dynasty (劉宋 420–479) (now lost);
• The Medicine Buddha Tathagata Original Vow Sutra (Foshuo yaoshi rulai benyuan jing 藥師如來本願經) by Dharmagupta (達摩笈多) in the Sui Dynasty (581–619);
• Medicine Buddha Lapis Lazuli Light Tathagata Original Vow Merit Sutra (Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūryaprabha-rāja-sūtra 藥師琉璃光如來本願功德經) by Xuanzang (玄奘 602–664) in the Tang Dynasty (618–907); and
• The Medicine Buddha Lapis Lazuli Light Seven Buddhas Original Vow Merit Sutra (Saptatathāgatapūrvapraṇidhānaviśeṣ 藥師琉璃光七佛本願功德經) by Yijing (義淨 632–713) of the Tang Dynasty.

Since paintings of the Medicine Buddha Sutra had been created in Dunhuang from the Sui Dynasty to the Western Xia Dynasty, painters of the later periods must have access to editions that were already translated. Therefore, different images painted in different time periods would serve as great comparisons for exploring their textual bases and the relationship between the images and texts.

2. Textual Analysis

Throughout history, the five Chinese sutras related to the Medicine Buddha are shown in

Table 1. Sutras related to the Medicine Buddha in Chinese.

	Date/Period	Translator	Title	Volume	Taisho CBETA
1	Eastern Jin (317–322)	Śrīmitra	Foshuo guanding bachu guozui shengsi dedujing (Foshuo guandingjing) (edition S)	1	V. 21 N.1331
2	Liu Song (457)	Huijian	Yaoshi liuliguang jing	1	N/A
3	Sui (615)	Dharmagupta	Foshuo yaoshi rulai benyuan jing (edition D)	1	14 N. 449
4	Tang (650)	Xuanzang	Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūryaprabha-rāja-sūtra (edition X)	1	14 N. 450
5	Tang (707)	Yijing	Saptatathāgatapūrvapraṇidhānaviśeṣavistara (edition Y)	2	14 N. 451

. The leading Buddhologists Takakusu Junjiro, Watanabe Kaikyuko, Ono Genmyō and more than 300 Japanese specialists started to work on the Taishō Tripiṭaka 大正新脩大藏經 since 1924; the first edition of 88 carefully categorized volumes of sutras was published in 1934. Since then, it has been the most comprehensive series of Chinese Buddhist texts. Initiated by a Taiwanese foremost monastic and scholar, Ven. Heng-ching, CBETA (Comprehensive Buddhist Electronic Text Archive Foundation) launched a huge undertaking to digitize Taishō Tripiṭaka since 1998, involving tens of thousands of volunteers to continue to collate, expand, edit, and proofread this huge series. As CBETA has been the most complete and edited Chinese Buddhist collation, it has been the most authoritative reference in academia. The last column in the following table refers to the volume, and sutra number of each sutra collected in the CBETA.

As the table above indicates, the Medicine Buddha Sutra started to circulate in China in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Since then, a new edition appeared in the Sui Dynasty, and Xuanzang and Yijing each contributed one translation during the Tang dynasty. Without a specific year recorded on the earliest edition, we only know that it was translated during the period of Emperor Yuan who reigned during 317–322. The second edition listed in this table did not survive and is only known by its title nowadays. Sengyou (僧祐 445–518) recorded that “Huijian copied and composed Yaoshi liuliguang jing in Luye Temple at Mailing 𥘯陵鹿野寺比丘慧簡 依經抄撰” in his Collected Records Concerning the Tripitaka (Chu sanzang jiji 出三藏記集) finished around 515 CE. (T.2145) However, Fajing (法經) listed Yaoshi liuliguang jing in his A Record of Sutras (Zhongjing mulu 眾經目錄) finished in 594 CE, the early Sui Dynasty, as “one of those only survived by the titles (zhongjing shiyi 眾經失佚). (T.2146) Even though the latter two editions were translated after the Sui Dynasty, the texts provide important information nonetheless. Therefore, the relevant sections of the texts will also be discussed in the following section.

By identifying elements in the paintings, further exploration of the relationship between images and texts could be made. Since their titles are all very long and similar, hereinafter, the Foshuo guanding bachu guozui shengsi dedujing translated by Śrīmitra will be referred to as “edition S”, the Foshuo yaoshi rulai benyuan jing translated by Dharmagupta will be referred to as “edition D”, the Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūryaprabha-rāja-sūtra translated by Xuanzang will be referred to as “edition X”, and the Saptatathāgatapūrvapraṇidhānaviśeṣavistara translated by Yijing will be referred to as “edition Y” in short. According to Tsai’s lecture between 10–12 July 2020, the surviving Sanskrit text is very close to Xuanzang’s Chinese translation (Tsai 2020).

Elements related to the imagery are discussed below in the sequence of appearance in the sutras.

2.1. Time, Locations, and Other Major Information of When the Sutra Was Been Orated

In the very beginning, the time, location, speaker, and the Bodhisattva who presents the enquiry of each sutra are as follows:

In this section, the four texts quoted in

Table 2. The time, location, and other major information of each sutra.

	Element	Edition S	Edition D	Edition X	Edition Y
1	time	One time一時	One time一時	One time一時	One time一時
2	location	Vaiśālī 維耶離 Under the musical tree 音樂樹下	Vaiśālī 毘舍離國 Under the tree of music 樂音樹下	Vaiśālī 廣嚴城 Under the tree of music 樂音樹下	Vaiśālī 廣嚴城 Under the tree of music 樂音樹下
3	speaker	The Buddha 佛	Bhagavat 婆伽婆	Bhagavat 薄伽梵	Bhagavat 薄伽梵
4	enquirer	Manjushri 文殊師利 Knelt on both knees, palms joined together with interlocking thumbs 長跪叉手合掌	Manjushri 曼殊室利 Knelt on the right knee with palms joined together while bowing 右膝著地, 合掌曲躬	Manjushri 曼殊室利 Knelt on the right knee, bowed with palms joined together 右膝著地, 曲躬合掌	Manjushri 曼殊室利 Knelt on the right knee with palms joined together 右膝著地，合掌

Unless otherwise noted, all translations are mine.

do not vary much. First, the phrases for time are exactly the same even though the meaning is vague. Second, regarding the location, the seemingly different names of the city in edition S, and country in edition D, are heterographs of the transliteration of Vaiśālī whereas edition X and edition Y are translations of the literal meaning of the word, “Vaiśālī,” itself. Then the part regarding the tree is probably a misplacement since the characters are exactly the same, and the reverse word order does not change the meaning in this context. Thirdly, edition S refers to the speaker as “the Buddha,” while the later three starting from the Sui Dynasty transliterate the word “Bhagavat” into Pojiapo 婆伽婆, and Boqiefan 薄伽梵. These two heterographs of the Bhagavat are listed in Ding Fubao’s A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms as one of the ten epitaphs of the Buddha (CBETA), https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/ (accessed on 21 July 2025). Fourthly, the seemingly different names of the enquirer are also heterographs of the transliteration of the Bodhisattva Manjushri. Again, the Sui and Tang Dynasty translations chose the same characters to transliterate Manjushri. Even though the positions of the Bodhisattva Manjushri focusing on their hand gestures and kneeling posture were chosen differently in the sutras, his images are not shown in the paintings. In other words, not all elements of this part of the sutra are chosen to be depicted in the tableaux.

2.2. The Twelve Great Vows

Out of the four translated editions, the earlier three list the Medicine Buddha’s twelve great vows right after these basic data regarding the time, location, speaker, and the inquirer, while in edition Y, these twelve great vows are listed at the end of two series of Eight Great Vows, and four series of the Four Great Vows sutra. The Medicine Buddha vowed to achieve all these twelve aspects in life upon becoming a Buddha so that He could help all sentient beings to achieve the same states in their life. In this sense, these enticing vows demonstrate the future of all beings.

Almost all the vows in the four editions are highly compatible with minor variations in wordings, with the exception of the eighth vow, which will be discussed at the end of this section.

1.

All the nice physical attributes of a Buddha, mahā-puruṣa lakṣaṇa (32 marks of greatness), will be manifested to emit boundless, bright light to countless realms.

2.

The body will radiate light of clear and pure lapis lazuli, and dwell in the web of light that is brighter than the sun and the moon. The beings in the dark will be awakened and be capable of engaging in matters according to their wishes.

3.

With a Buddha’s wisdom and skillful means, all sentient beings will be granted abundant properties.

4.

All sentient beings walk on the Mahayana Bodhisattva Path.

5.

All sentient beings will be able to observe precepts, cultivate wholesome deeds, and avoid falling into the woeful paths.

6.

Those with less than perfect physical faculties will become healthy again and be free from suffering.

7.

When the less privileged and marginalized people hear my name, their illnesses and afflictions will be alleviated.

8.

With peaceful and joyful minds, they will achieve the Supreme Bodhi eventually.

9.

All who were caught by the dark force will be able to acquire the right views and walk the right path, cultivate the Bodhisattva practice, and realize the Ultimate Bodhi.

10.

By the Buddha’s virtues and power, those who were subject to injustice and oppression will be free from mental and physical sufferings.

11.

Ample of delicious food and drinks will be available to those who committed unwholesome deeds due to deprivation of food and water in previous lives. Then they will dwell in ultimate peace and joy with the “food of Dharma.”

12.

Fine clothing will be available to those who do not have cloth to cover themselves so they can protect themselves from severe bad weather.

In short, the Medicine Buddha’s twelve vows for all sentient beings are as follows: 1. Nice appearance, 2. Body of Lapus Lazuli, 3. End of hunger, 4. On the Bodhi path, 5. Observe perfect precepts, 6. and 7. Health, 8. Wisdom, 9. Free from Bad Influences, 10. Free from injustice, 11. Abundance, and 12. End of poverty.

As for the eighth vow, edition S vows to make sentient beings be free from ignorance, comprehend the Dharma, and obtain the ultimate wisdom. The rest of the three editions vow to help those who agonize over all the disadvantages, troubles, and difficulties of being women to be reborn into men and achieve the ultimate Bodhi in future lives. Even though there is the difference between “be free from ignorance” and “be reborn as men”, eventually, they all want the same result, to obtain the ultimate wisdom.

2.3. The Bodhisattva Sun, and the Bodhisattva Moon

Then, all four editions describe the two leading Bodhisattvas among the numerous ones in the Medicine Buddha Land in a very similar fashion with minor variations in their names. In general, the sutra states that “In this (Buddha) Land, there are two great Bodhisattvas, Universal Solar Radiance and Universal Lunar Radiance, who are the leaders of the countless Bodhisattvas and guard the Buddha’s True Dharma Treasure.”

Specifically, their names are “the Sun Ray (riyao 日曜, and the Moon Purity (yuejing 月淨)” in edition S, “Sun Light (riguang 日光) and Moon Light (yueguang 月光)” in the Sui Dynasty edition D, and “Universal Lunar Radiance (riguang bianzhao 日光遍照) and Universal Solar Radiance (yueguang bianzhao 月光遍照)” in edition X, and edition Y.

In particular, one of the two principal Bodhisattvas is sun light while the other one is moon light. Other than the Medicine Buddha, these two Bodhisattvas are the highest among all the Bodhisattvas in terms of hierarchy. Yet under scrutiny, only edition S makes it clear that they are the Ekajātipratibaddha (cibufochu 次補佛處), Bodhisattvas who have one last rebirth and are waiting to become the next Buddha. In Chinese, the term literally means that the Bodhisattva is next in line to become a Buddha. The other three do not use the specific term Ekajātipratibaddha, but simply explain the meaning of the term in a sentence indicating these two chief Bodhisattvas are next in line to become the following Buddhas.

2.4. Eight Bodhisattvas

All four editions speak of the eight Bodhisattvas who will guide devoted and long-term practitioners who wish to be reborn into Amitabha’s Pure Land of the West to their destinations. In the earliest edition, S, it is said that hearing the vows listed in this said sutra is one’s ticket to the pure land after death whereas in the later three editions, hearing the NAME, the Medicine Buddha, will suffice. Not surprisingly, there are variations in choice of characters. For examples, the Medicine Buddha could be referred to as “the World Honored One, Medicine Lapis Lazuli Light Tathagata (Shizun Yaoshi liuliguang Rulai 世尊藥師琉璃光如來” or “Medicine Lapis Lazuli Light Tathagata (Yaoshi liuliguang Rulai 藥師琉璃光如來)” where both “the World Honored One,” and “Tathagata” are two of the Buddha’s ten epitaphs. The Amitābha Buddha of the Pure Land of the West could be referred to in His transliteration, the Amituo Tathagata (Amituo Rulai 阿彌陀如來), or the literal translation, Buddha of the Measureless Life (Amitāyus, Wuliangshoufo 無量壽佛).

Furthermore, there are different degrees of detail in some aspects. Some minor details such as the flowers in the Pure Land goes from “lotus” in edition S, “potoumo 波頭摩,” the transliteration of lotus, to “precious flowers in various colors” in the later editions. However, there are major differences in terms of the condition and how the practitioners get to be reborn in the Pure land. Edition S mentions that “at the very end of people’ life, if they are one of the four Buddhist groups, had heard the merits of the Lapis Lazuli Light original vows, and are mindful of (keep remembering) the vows for at least one entire day and night, then they will be reborn in lotus flowers without going through eight ordeals”. However, things get easier after the Sui Dynasty as seen in the later three editions. The monastics or devotees only need to hear the name of the Medicine Buddha before, then the Great Bodhisattvas will “transport” them to the Pure Land of the West immediately. In the earlier edition S, the translator provided a detail that practitioners will be reborn into the Pure Land directly without going through the eight torments, which is a very attractive incentive for devotees to keep listening to or reciting the Medicine Buddha sutra at the death beds.

And yet, why would these Eight Bodhisattvas take the deceased to the Pure Land of the West, rather than where the Bodhisattvas are, the Pure Land of the East? Perhaps as the Sui Dynasty was the time when Medicine Buddha belief started to emerge in Dunhuang, evoking the pre-existing Pure Land of the West concept to which the devotees could relate created a win–win situation. Or would this tactic actually undermine the main theme of the Medicine Buddha Pure Land of the East? This remains an issue for further investigation.

2.5. The Four Heavenly Kings

In the earlier three editions, the Four Heavenly Kings appear between the Eight Bodhisattvas and the lamp and flags for the ritual. After the conversation between the Buddha and Bodhisattva Manjushri, the Bodhisattva explained that after the Nirvana of the Buddha, the Four Heavenly Kings will appear to protect the Dharma for posterity. The later three editions state that even those who died unlawfully and were killed by vicious ghosts will resurrect from death! Such a strong statement shows how powerful these Four Heavenly Kings are.

However, in the latest edition, the Four Heavenly Kings and similar wordings about their potent capability to bring peace to the world and grant justice to the wrongfully dead do not appear until the end of the sutra. This fortifies the protective force of these celestial beings to reassure devotees that the Dharma will not disappear along with the Buddha’s Nirvana.

2.6. Lamps and the Long Flags That Prolong People’s Lives

All four editions mention the essential instruments, “the lamps and the long flags that could prolong people’s lives (xuming fandeng 續命幡燈) as seen in

Table 3. Texts related to the lamps and flags.

	Lamps	Flag
Edition S	Seven-layered lamp… There are seven candles in each layer, and each layer is like the wheel of a cart… 49 lamps	the long, 5-colored flag that could prolong lives
Edition D	Light 49 lamps… have seven Medicine Buddha’s statues made, each with seven lamps as big as the wheel of a cart in the front, or keep the lamps lit for 49 days.	Make the long, 5-colored flag in 49 chi long
Edition X	Light the Seven-layered lamp… light 49 lamps…have seven Medicine Buddha’s statues made, each with the seven lamps each as big as the wheel of a cart in front for 49 days.	Hang up the 5-colored long flag that could prolong lives. The flag is 49 vitastf long.
Edition Y	Light 49 lamps… Have seven Medicine Buddha’s statues made, each with seven lamps each in the shape of the wheel of a cart in front, keep the lamps lit until the night of the 49the day.	Make the colorful flags in 49 chi long.

”.

Interestingly, the wordings of this practical part are confusing and even seem contradicting within the same edition. All four editions mention the keyword, 49 lamps, but the details might not add up in some editions. Being the earliest and most succinct, edition S is actually the only translation that makes sense when reading. It says that the lamp consists of seven layers and each layer comprises seven candles. Therefore, there are 49 candles all together, simple, clear, and logical. Then Dharmagupta of the Sui Dynasty started to introduce seven Medicine Buddha statues into this ritual, and the two later editions follow suit. However, it also gets ambiguous about how they come up with 49 lamps. Is “seven lamps” short for “seven-layered lamp”? Even to “put seven lamps in front of each Buddha statue,” could also be understood as “put one lamp in front of each Buddha statue.” And there are two different ways of how “each lamp is like the wheel of a cart.” Edition D and edition X state that the size of the lamp is as big as the wheel of a cart while the latest edition Y says that the lamps are placed in the shape of the wheel of a cart. One can almost imagine that the Medieval Chinese people put candles on the rim of a wheel lying flat on the ground in front of the Buddha statues in the Medicine Buddha Festival that lasted for 49 days.

Other than the earliest edition, the three later editions all mention that the candles should be lit for 49 consecutive days. Dharmagupta’s edition which says “or you can keep the candles lit the entire 49 days” somehow made it questionable if the duration of 49 days is a new creation. But then, the latter two editions simply mention 49 days in a matter-of-factly way. However, by mentioning both “the seven-layered lamp”, “light 49 lamps”, and “put seven lamps in front of each Buddha statue,” there is more than one way to count 49 in edition X. Since this paper does not focus on the texts themselves, but on the intermediality of texts and imagery, the main point is not to settle how Xuanzang counts 49 lamps here. Regardless of the differences, one thing remains the same: 49 lamps.

Regarding the flag, the earlier three editions all describe it as “five-colored” while the latest edition Y only states that it is “colorful”. The earliest edition S does not specify the size of the flag while the later three editions since edition D make it clear that it should be 49 units in length. Throughout Chinese history, units of length varied in different dynasties. A chi 尺 in the Sui Dynasty (in edition D) is roughly 29.6 cm while a chi (in edition Y) during the Tang Dynasty is 30 cm (Wikipedia Chinese Units of Measurement, Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_units_of_measurement (accessed on 6 September 2025)). According to most of the Buddhist texts and ancient Buddhist dictionary compiled right after the Tang Dynasty, vitastf (jieshou/zhashou 搩手), an Indian unit of length when Xuanzang visited India, between the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when stretched. However, these two units in length coexisted during the Tang Dynasty, and many contradictory records on the conversion rates between the units among different dynasties and the vitastf is beyond the scope of this article. At the very least, the latter three translators agree that the length of the flag should be 49 units of that time period. In addition, the vague language of the latest edition documents that there should be 49 colorful flags without specifying their sizes. The last part is most confusing because it could be read either “with an additional one in 49 chi long,” or “they are all in 49 chi long (造雜綵幡四十九首 并一長幡四十九尺).

2.7. Twelve Demigods

There are many alternative names for the Twelve Demigods in the four editions due to literal translation or heterographs of transliterations.

Table 4. Names of the Twelve Demigods shown in all editions of the Medicine Buddha Sutras.

	Edition S Demigods	Edition D Yakṣa Generals	Edition X Yakṣa Generals	Edition Y Yakṣa Generals
1. Kiṃbhīro	金毗羅 Jinpiluo	宮毘羅大將 Gongliluo dajiang	宮毘羅大將 Gongpiluo dajiang	宮毘羅大將 Gongliluo dajiang
2. Vajro	和耆羅 Heqiluo	跋折羅大將 Bazheluo dajiang	伐折羅大將 Anzheluo dajiang	跋折羅大將 Bazheluo dajiang
3. Mekhilo	安陁羅 Anyiluo	迷佉羅大將 Miquluo dajiang	迷企羅大將 Miqiluo dajiang	迷企羅大將 Miqiluo dajiang
4. Antilo	摩尼羅 Moniuo	安捺羅大將 Annailuo dajiang	安底羅大將 Andiluo dajiang	頞儞羅大將 Anniluo dajiang
5. Anilo	宋林羅 Songlinluo	安怛羅大將 Antaluo dajiang	頞儞羅大將 Anniluo dajiang	末儞羅大將 Moniluo dajiang
6. Saṇṭhilo	弥祛羅 Miquluo	摩涅羅大將 Monieluo dajiang	珊底羅大將 Shandiluo dajiang	娑儞羅大將 Suoniluo dajiang
7. Indalo	婆那羅 ponaluo	因陀羅大將 Intuoluo dajiang	因達羅大將 Yindaluo dajiang	因陀羅大將 Yindaluo dajiang
8. Pāyilo	摩𠇾羅 Moxiuluo	波異羅大將 Poyiluo dajiang	波夷羅大將 Poyiluo dajiang	波夷羅大將 Poyiluo dajiang
9. Mahālo	照頭羅 Zhaotuoluo	摩呼羅大將 Mohuluo dajiang	摩虎羅大將 Mohuluo dajiang	薄呼羅大將 Bohuluo dajiang
10. Cidālo	毗伽羅 Piqieluo	真達羅大將 Zhendaluo dajiang	真達羅大將 Zhendaluo dajiang	真達羅大將 Zhendaluo dajiang
11. Caundhulo	囙持羅 Jiongteluo	招度羅大將 Zhaoduluo dajiang	招杜羅大將 Zhaoduluo dajiang	朱杜羅大將 Zhuduluo dajiang
12. Vikalo	真陁羅 Ahenyiluo	鼻羯羅大將 Bijieluo dajiang	毘羯羅大將 Pijieluo dajiang	毘羯羅大將 Pijieluo dajiang

below lists all the names of the Twelve Demigods shown in all editions.

In general, after Dharmagupta of the Sui Dynasty translated these twelve as Yakṣa General-in-chiefs (mahā yakṣa senāpatiḥ); the latter two translators followed suit (Tsai webpage).1 In addition, the earliest edition stands out further as the later three transliterations are closer to each other in their names, too. Under scrutiny, one will find that the order listed in earliest edition was different from the later three. For example, the third and the fourth Demigods listed in edition S might be in the reverse order when compared to the later three. The fifth Demigod listed in edition S might be the sixth Demigod listed in the Sanskrit edition consulted, and so on. Of course, there are also different choices of homophones in the later three editions as listed in the table. Since this paper focuses on the intermediality of the texts and imagery, the inquiries in phonics and philology fall out of the premises of this study. In any rate, from the names of the Twelve Yakṣa General-in-chiefs, it is apparent that the latter three editions are possibly derived from the same Sanskrit edition.

Generally, the Twelve Yakṣa General-in-chiefs are also described as the Dharma protectors in the sutras. Edition S referred to these Twelve Dharma Protectors as either the “Twelve Deities (shenwang 神王)”, or the “Twelve Demigods (guishen 鬼神)”. The yecha 夜叉 in edition D and yaocha 藥叉 in editions X and Y are both the heterographs of transliterations of the Sanskrit “Yakṣa.” Again, this suggests that even though the latter three Sanskrit original editions might not be the exact same one, they are closely similar for certain.

Regardless of the names and titles of these Dharma protectors, upon hearing or reading this sutra, the devotees form a strong connection with the sutras. Whoever hears or reads this sutra will be protected by these twelve Yakṣa. In other words, these twelve Yakṣa portray the important role in interacting with the devotees, delivering messages to the mass audience, and conveying the sense of divine liminality in this sutra.

3. On the Imagery of the Medicine Buddha Sutra in Dunhuang During the Sui Dynasty

The four images of the Medicine Buddha in Dunhuang during the Sui Dynasty are discussed in chronological sequence as follows:

3.1. General Description of the Caves

3.1.1. On the Ceiling Behind the Niche in the West Wall in Cave 417

Location: As a rule of thumb, those images located at the top center above the niche are often the important themes in their inception stage. Being a part of the main niche indicates its importance, yet they are not in the most central position. Therefore, this particular location suggests its secondary prominence.

Figure 1: (a). With a considerably big three-concentric-ringed halo, the Buddha, also in a bigger scale, wears a red robe and sits cross-legged in the center of this sections. He shows a dynamic “Dharma-preaching” mudra (shuofa yin 說法印), his right lower arm points upwards with his thumb and index finger touching each other, and his left hand lays flat on his lap. (b). The Eight Bodhisattvas, each with a smaller double concentric-ringed halo, stands on either side of the Buddha in a slight S-shaped upper body while looking at the Buddha reverently. (c). Twelve Demigods each with a halo are depicted half-kneeling and half-crouching on the bottom line, facing the center with their palms joined together holding jewelry with fingertips pointing to the center.

Other imagery: (a). Bodhisattva Maitreya, Bodhisattva Manjushri, and Vimalakirti are above the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableau. Within the architecture, the Bodhisattva Maitreya sits in the middle with two standing attendant Bodhisattvas franking by the celestial carts pulled by dragons and phoenixes. After a closer inspection, one will find two more significant figures sitting under the curtains on the lower level of the rooms on either side of the Bodhisattva Maitreya. Vimalakirti in a white dress sits cross-legged on Bodhisattva Maitreya’s right, and Bodhisattva Manjushri in an ocher dress sitting cross-legged on the left. And the carts show how Bodhisattva Manjushri, and Vimalakirti came to this celestial palace. In the last chapter of the Vimalakīrti-Nirdeśa-Sūtra (Weimojie suoshuojing 維摩詰所說經), the Buddha asked Bodhisattva Maitreya repeatedly to take over the responsibility to teach Dharma to sentient beings after the Buddha went into Nirvana. Vimalakirti resided at the Akṣobhya Buddha Pure Land of the East while the Medicine Buddha’s Pure Land is also in the East. Therefore, this section illustrates the scene of the Medicine Buddha’s Dharma talk and the participants at the talk. (b). Two Pensive Bodhisattvas with their retinue on either side of the Medicine Buddha’s Dharma talk sit on chairs with both feet on the ground, tilt their heads to rest on one hand in a deep-thinking mode. They both face the center and listen to the Medicine Buddha teaching Dharma attentively. One thing worth noticing is that Lee Yumin argues that Bodhisattvas in this posture are considered as Bodhisattva Maitreya on some occasions (Lee 1986). Therefore, this entire panel, including the apparent Medicine Buddha, the Bodhisattva Maitreya, Bodhisattva Manjushri, and Vimalakirti above, and the two Pensive Bodhisattvas on either side, constitute a scene of the Medicine Buddha giving a Dharma talk in his Pure Land of the East.

Instruments: (a). Right below the Medicine Buddha, in the center of the Twelve Demigods, stands a six-layered lamp. The lamp is depicted in detail that the spokes of the cart wheels are clearly visible even though there are six layers rather than what the sutra prescribed as seven layers. Nevertheless, it is clear that the lamp consists of multi-layers of cart wheels that hold candles to be lit for the special ritual. (b). The special flag described in the sutra is not seen in this cave.

3.1.2. On the East Slope of the Ceiling of the West Wall of Cave 433

Figure 2: (a). Similarly to Cave 417, the Buddha in this cave is also depicted in the biggest size, is shown with a substantially bigger halo, wears a now faded red robe, and sits cross-legged in the center of the ceiling above the niche. When compared to Cave 417, other than the elaborate jeweled canopy above the Buddha’s head, this buddha’s left hand points upward rather than lying flat on his lap. (b). Instead of the Eight Bodhisattvas standing beside the Buddha in cave 417, here are the two foremost Bodhisattvas described in the sutra, Bodhisattva Sun Light and Bodhisattva Moon Light each with a smaller double concentric-ringed halo. The Bodhisattva standing to Buddha’s left who holds a lotus flower is clearly wearing an elaborate hairdo where the hairdo is faded on the other Bodhisattva. (c), Similarly to Cave 417, the Twelve Demigods each with a halo are depicted in half-kneeling and half-crouching posture on the bottom line, facing the center holding jewelry on their palms. However, the Demigods were lining up in one single row on the bottom of the Buddha in Cave 417, while in here, they are lining up in two separate rows on both sides of the leading Bodhisattvas.

The Eight Bodhisattvas shown in Cave 417 are the Bodhisattvas who would guide the newly deceased people to the Pure Lands of their choosing. The two chief Bodhisattvas in Cave 433 reiterate that the scene is a representation of the Medicine Buddha ritual in his Pure Land of the east.

Instruments: An almost Christmas tree-shaped nine-leveled lamp stands between the leading Bodhisattva and the six Demigods. Again, the “spokes” of the cart wheels in each layer are clearly depicted in this cave. On the very tops of the poles of the lamps are three long sticks tied together to further elongate the lamps.

In addition, several apsaras (feitian 飛天), the celestial beings, fly around the entire scene to indicate that this Pure Land of the East is somewhere far away from our current location in the sky. Whereas Cave 417 engage Bodhisattva Maitreya, Bodhisattva Manjushri, and Vimalakirti to signify a Pure Land of the East, here in Cave 433, apsaras marked the premise of the Medicine Buddha Pure Land without other Bodhisattva’s help.

3.1.3. On the East Slope of the Ceiling of the West Wall of Cave 436

Located in the exact same spot as Cave 433, this Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableau also appeared on the east slope of the ceiling of the west wall. Unfortunately, the lower part of this image was not intact and was covered by some cloud patterns painted by the later period.

Figure 3: (a). The Buddha in this cave is also the biggest in size, is shown with a substantially bigger three concentric-colored halo, wears a faded light-colored robe, and sits cross-legged in the center of the ceiling above the niche. The dynamic “Dharma-preaching” mudra with the left hand pointing to the feet is a new variation. The multiple-paneled plain colored screen right behind the Buddha is a new addition to the sutra tableau, and has not become a common feature in the later depictions either. (b). Two monks with black halos stand next to the screen, one of whom standing to the Buddha’s right side is mostly behind the screen. As the only representation of the monks in the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux during the Sui Dynasty, they have become commonly seen in many paintings depicting other sutras during the Sui Dynasty and certainly in later periods, too. This suggests that the monks or the craftsmen who decided on the images of the cave paintings were not entirely convinced that the disciples were indispensable parts of this sutra. (c). Next to the monks stands the two leading Bodhisattvas, the Bodhisattva Sun Light and Bodhisattva Moon Light, each with a white halo smaller than the Buddha’s and bigger than the Monk’s. The sizes of the halos reflect the hierarchy of the figures. The Bodhisattvas standing on Buddha’s left side also shows the upward dynamic “Dharma preaching” mudra (similar to the international “OK sign” in her right hand). All these central figures including the Buddha, monks and the chief Bodhisattvas are under a canopy much bigger than the one in Cave 433. (d). Similarly to Cave 433, the Twelve Demigods each with a halo are depicted half-kneeling and half-crouching in two rows on both sides off the two leading Bodhisattvas, facing the center holding a big shallow plate containing jewelry on their palms. The new additions to this section are the inscription cartouches, the beige rectangle boxes right next to each Demigod’s halos. Unfortunately, all the names of the Demigods have gone beyond recognition, now leaving only the identifiable outlines of the rectangles. The lower three Demigods are missing on the right side of the Buddha.

Instruments: The prominent instrument or tool in the Medicine Buddha Ritual is the multi-leveled lamp in Cave 417 and 433 while the instruments used in Cave 436 are the 49-chi long flags fluttering beside the canopy. The flag on the right side of the Buddha flies on the top border over the apsar who was also flying in the sky. The other flag droops down from the top boarder and then takes a U-turn and flies upward right above the halo of the Bodhisattva. The very long flags stretching over almost one-third of the whole scene suggests the imposing majesty and magical power of the flags.

Below are some further details worth noticing in this painting:

(a)

The grand canopy that sheltered the Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and monks is decorated in a modern and colorful design. It almost gives out a flavor of a circus.

(b)

The multi-paneled screen is a new addition in this cave.

(c)

The dynamic “Dharma-preaching” mudra with the left hand pointing to the feet becomes the convention of the Medicine Buddha and this is the earliest appearance in Dunhuang Grottos.

(d)

The emergence of the monks in this cave showed the inception of a standard Buddha’s full retinue in the future.

(e)

Another new addition, the cartouches for the Demigods, indicates either the rising inquiry of the identities of these twelve Demigods from the audience, or the unfamiliarity of the craftsmen and/or monks responsible for this cave of these Demigods. Even though none of the names remains visible now, it is clear that the cartouches are not big, and sometimes there is probably not enough room to write their entire names.

(f)

It is interesting that neither 417, 433, nor 436 presented both the lamps and flags that are mentioned in all the Medicine Buddha Sutras. On the other hand, these three caves showed a progressive process from the lamps to the flags.

In general, the apsaras flying around the outside of the Medicine Buddha’s ritual indicate the attending audiences need to fly to the Pure Land of the East. In contrast with the Cave 433 where apsaras were also present, the apsaras in Cave 436 were bigger in size and they all fly upwards.

3.1.4. On the East Wall of Cave 394

Rather than appearing on the west wall as in the previous three caves, the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableau appears on the east wall beside the entrance space, and above the entrance of Cave 394. Even though it does not seem to be as important as being on the west wall, the surface area on the east wall is actually bigger.

Figure 4: (a). the Medicine Buddha in this cave is also the biggest in size, is shown with a substantially bigger three concentric-colored halo, wears a red robe, and sits cross-legged in the center above the door. Instead of the dynamic “Dharma-preaching” mudra shown in the previous three caves, this Medicine Buddha is in dyana mudra (chanding yin 禪定印), with both palms resting on the feet as in meditation. (b). Standing beside the Buddha are the two leading Bodhisattvas, the Bodhisattva Sun Light and Bodhisattva Moon Light, each with a two-toned smaller halo. However, the shape of the halo is in a half-boat shape with a sharp tip pointing upward. It is likely that the new shape of halo is influenced by the pointy-tipped halo of the Demigod. (c). Next to the two leading Bodhisattvas are the Twelve Demigods, each with a solid-colored halo. Since there is more room above the door than the previous three caves, the Twelve Demigods are depicted half-kneeling and half-crouching in profile, lining up diagonally in groups of three to form four perspective lines which would have merged into one focal point behind the Medicine Buddha beyond this frame. As a result, the shape of the halos of these Demigods, should have been round if looking from the front, look oblong with pointy tips. (d). On the additional space beside the entrance space, two standing Heavenly Kings wearing generals’ armors are painted on each side. Within their triple-colored halos, their gray-colored helmets are clearly visible. Somehow their entire image resembles astronauts wearing their space suits. The reasons why Cave 394 presents the Four Heavenly Kings rather than the two disciples as in Cave 436 could be manyfold. First of all, to present four figures is certainly a better choice than two in filling up the ample space by the entrance. The more important reason was the function of these Four Heavenly Kings which were mentioned in all four editions of the Medicine Buddha Sutra. As Dharma Protectors, these Four Heavenly Kings stand guard right next to the doorway, which is exactly where they needed to be. Being the debut appearance of the Four Heavenly Kings in the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableau, it is only natural that cartouches are reserved for the names of these figures. Regretfully, their names are beyond recognition for now, and the lower parts of these Heavenly Kings are also fading away.

Instruments: Similarly to Cave 436, two long flags are shown between the Medicine Buddha and His attendant Bodhisattvas in this painting. However, instead of fluttering in mid-air in different postures in Cave 436, the flags depicted in Cave 394 droop from the thin poles. In addition, without being blocked by the screen as in Cave 436, these two flags are clearly on display right next to the Buddha without any obstruction. Furthermore, the long flags looking like the weeping willows that drape from the poles seem static, even frozen in space. This sense of quietness and solemness echoes in the Medicine Buddha’s mudra that lay flat on the feet.

Below are some further details worth noticing in this painting:

(a)

As the first representation of the Four Heavenly Kings in the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableau in Dunhuang, not only they and the Twelve Demigods are depicted in different areas on the wall, but the two beings are shown in totally different attires and postures. However, probably due to the similar Dharma-protecting functions of the Heavenly Kings and the Demigods, they are portrayed together in later periods in Dunhuang.

(b)

The most central ensemble of “Medicine Buddha + two leading Bodhisattvas + two magical long flags” emphasizes the importance of these powerful flags since they are closer to the Buddha than the Twelve Demigods.

3.2. Discussions of Themes

The Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux in Dunhuang during the Sui Dynasty can be summarized into

Table 5. Summary of themes of the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux in Dunhuang during the Sui Dynasty.

Cave	Location	Attendant Bodhisattvas	Twelve Demigods	Lamp	Flag
417	Ceiling of the Niche, West wall	N/A	Y	1	N/A
433	East slope of the Niche, West wall	Y	Y	2	N/A
436	East slope of the Niche, West wall	Y	Y	N/A	2
396	East wall, above the entrance	Y	Y	N/A	2

below:

3.2.1. Locations

It is clear that the earliest three Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux are depicted on the ceiling, above the niche of the west wall. Even though they are shown on most important wall right in front of the viewers, but they are higher than the expected viewpoints of most common people. The high location indicates its potentiality of becoming a very important theme in later periods.

The last representation of Cave 394, being painted on the east wall, the last sight before devotees leave the cave, also indicate its importance. Furthermore, it is bigger in size, and placed at the eye level of the viewers, which also reinforce the significance of this theme.

3.2.2. Thematic Imagery

(1)

The Medicine Buddha

a.

Clothing: Three (Caves 417, 433, and 394) out of four depictions of the Medicine Buddha during the Sui Dynasty in Dunhuang dress in red robes while the other one’s (Cave 436) robe is faded into whitish color.

b.

Mudras: Three (Caves 417, 433, and 436) out of four depictions of the Medicine Buddha during the Sui Dynasty in Dunhuang are in the dynamic Dharma-preaching” mudra while Cave 436 is the first cave that shows the Medicine Buddha in His conventional mudra with His left hand facing downward. Yet, in Cave 394, the Medicine Buddha is shown with a static dyana mudra. As the first 3 out of the long 65 decades that the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux are depicted, minor variations in details show that these four representations are in their early inaugurating stage.

(2)

Attendant Bodhisattvas:

a.

Only the earliest Cave 417 shows the Eight Bodhisattvas as the attendant Bodhisattvas, which make the composition more rectangular. The Eight Bodhisattvas are there to receive the newly deceased and show them their ways to the Pure Lands of their choosing.

The later three caves choose the two leading Bodhisattvas, the Bodhisattva Sun Light and Bodhisattva Moon Light as the Medicine Buddha’s attendants. Since there are less figures involved, the composition tends to be square and less crowded. As all four sutras indicate that these are the two foremost Bodhisattvas in this Medicine Buddha’s Pure Land (editions D, X, and Y) who are the following Buddhas waiting for their time to obtain the ultimate wisdom (edition S), these two Bodhisattvas are the highest figures among all the Bodhisattvas and are in closer relationship with the Buddha.

Reviewing the central component of the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux during the Sui Dynasty in Dunhuang, it seems in terms of composition, the group of two leading Bodhisattvas is a better choice as the attendant Bodhisattvas.

(3)

Twelve Demigods

The fact that all four caves depict the Twelve Demigods in the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux shows the essential nature of these figures. As Dharma protectors, they assure the viewers that the Dharma will be well-preserved and available to the posterity.

(4)

Lamps and Long Flags

All four sutras mention the magical powers of both lighting candles in the lamps and commissioning the 49-feet long flags. Nonetheless, they never appeared together in any cave built during the Sui Dynasty. The earliest Cave 417 shows a six-layered lamp while the following Cave 433 depicts two nine-layered lamps. The later Caves 436 and 394 show two long flags on each scene. Without any record of any information regarding the designers, craftsmen, and the monks who were in charge of those caves, there is no way of decerning the reasons behind these representations. At the very least, the discrepancy in this element suggests the beginning phase of portraying this sutra in question.

4. Conclusions

4.1. Texts

In general, the sequence of all four editions of the Medicine Buddha Sutra are as follows:

• The time, locale, and the major participants of this said Dharma talk: Under the musical tree at Vaiśālī, Bodhisattva Manjushri initiated this Dharma talk by asking Buddha questions.
• The Twelve Great Vows: The sequence and the contents of these twelve vows are highly consistent yet there is a minor variation in the content of the eighth one. In the earliest translation, edition S, the eighth vow is to set all sentient beings free from ignorance, while Dharmagupta, the Sui Dynasty monk pioneer translates that all women are to be reborn into men in their future lives. And yet, all four of them all vow to reach the same goal, to comprehend the Dharma, and obtain the ultimate wisdom.
• The two foremost Bodhisattvas: Even though the translated names of them are not identical, they are all related to the Sun Light and the Moon Light. And again, the Sui Dynasty translation is the first to specify that these two Bodhisattvas are the most senior two out of all the numerous Bodhisattvas.
• The Eight Bodhisattvas: All four editions agree that the function of these eight Bodhisattvas is to lead the newly deceased to the Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land of the West. All four editions describe the grandeurs lotus pond as the future local of rebirth, yet edition D rendered in the Sui Dynasty is the first to clarify that their future destination would be Amitabha’s Pure Land of the West. When first trying to introduce the Medicine Buddha to Dunhuang during the Sui Dynasty, evoking the Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land seems like a good tactic. Nonetheless, the Medicine Buddha’s Pure Land of the East does not seem to gain any foothold as the Medicine Buddha Sutra become more popular.
• The Four Heavenly Kings: All four translations explain their roles as the Dharma protectors. The Sui Dynasty edition D shows the earliest record that these Kings can resurrect the dead.
• The lamps and long flags, the magical instruments that prolong people’s lives:

  (1)

  Seven-layered lamp with seven candles on each layer,

  (2)

  Five-colored flags which are 49 chi in length.

One detail worth noticing is that the Sui Dynasty edition D starts to specify that there should be one lamp in front of each Buddha statue.

7.

The Twelve Demigods: All four editions reassure devotees that those who recite the Medicine Buddha Sutra will be well-protected by these twelve Demigods. Despite slight variations in transliterating the names of these Demigods, the latter two editions translated in the Tang Dynasty seem to follow edition D quite closely.

4.2. Imagery

To summarize, these are the important elements of the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux in Dunhuang during the Sui Dynasty:

• List of caves in chronological sequence: 417, 433, 436, and 394.
• Locations: (1). The earlier three are depicted on the ceilings of the niches on the west wall while the last one is painted on the east wall. (2). The variation in sizes and height of the representations indicates the development phase of this theme in Dunhuang.
• The Medicine Buddha: (1). The three earlier ones are in red clothing while the last one is in faded whitish clothing. (2). Murda: The three earlier ones are in dynamic Dharma-preaching mudra while the last one is in dyana mudra.
• Attendant Bodhisattvas: The first one is the Eight Bodhisattvas while the latter three become the two leading Bodhisattvas.
• Twelve Demigods: All four depictions show these Twelve Demigods and suggest that they are essential to this sutra.
• Four Heavenly Kings: The latest Cave 394 portrays the Four Heavenly Kings by the entrance to embody their Dharma-protecting nature. To present the Four Heavenly Kings with the Twelve Demigods together further emphasize their function to secure the Dharma.
• Lamps and flags: Even though they sound very powerful in the sutra, the earlier two caves only depict lamps while the latter two only portray flags. Therefore, during the Sui Dynasty, the flags replace the lamps to represent the imagery as the magical instrument.

4.3. Conjecture of the Textual Source of the Imagery in Dunhuang

As mentioned before, there are only two possible Medicine Buddha Sutra available to the monks and craftsmen during the Sui Dynasty because the latter two editions are translated after the Sui Dynasty.

• Cartouches of the Twelve Demigods in Cave 436. Even though the inscriptions are all gone, the outlines of the cartouches are still visible. Judging from the small-sized cartouches, the names would not be too long. Therefore, it is more likely that the image is based on edition S which has the shorter names for Demigods, only three characters.
• The earliest Cave 417 depicted Eight Bodhisattvas rather than the two leading Bodhisattvas. Śrīmitra states that the two foremost Bodhisattvas are the Ekajātipratibaddha Bodhisattvas without explaining who they are. On the other hand, he explains in detail that the Eight Bodhisattvas can lead the newly deceased to the Pure Land of their choice without being through eight Ordeals. This suggests that the monks and painters are more familiar with the Eight Bodhisattvas rather than the two leading Bodhisattvas.
• When it comes to the magical life-prolonging instruments, the earliest edition S is the only one that does not mention the seven statues of Medicine Buddha in the festival. All the Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux made after the Sui Dynasty depict seven Medicine Buddha statues indicates that the Dharmagupta edition is only available in the Dunhuang area after the Tang Dynasty. In other words, Medicine Buddha Sutra Tableaux made during the Sui Dynasty were based on the earliest edition S.

In addition, there are four copies of the Medicine Buddha Sutra written during the Northern Dynasty (386–581) found in the Dunhuang Caves, all of which are edition S. Juxtaposing relevant texts to these four caves substantiates Luo’s (1989) and Lee’s (1990) empty claim that the Medicine Buddha Sutra edition available at Dunhuang during the Sui Dynasty was the earliest Chinese one translated by Śrīmitra. Furthermore, this is clear material proof that the Medicine Buddha Sutra has been transmitted into Dunhuang by the Sui Dynasty.