The Self-Cultivation Realm and Natural Value in Zhuangzi’s Concept of Zhenren 真人

Abstract

Adopting a comparative philosophical approach and engaging in textual analysis, this paper reveals that the concept of Zhenren 真人—as the embodiment of Zhuangzi’s ideal personality—explicates the dual connotations and axiological foundations of “naturalness” (ziran 自然) as the central paradigm of his spiritual realm theory. In the Daoist context, naturalness encompasses two interrelated dimensions: the ontological “naturalness of the Dao” and the existential “naturalness of the Zhenren”. These dimensions are integrated through the practical principles of “assisting all things” and “accommodating their inherent tendencies.” At the level of realm discourse, Zhuangzi’s Zhenren stands apart from the rational, truth-seeking tradition of Western philosophy by pursuing naturalness-oriented cultivation. This gives rise to a distinctive realm system characterized by a psychological state of “equanimity and clarity”, an axiological orientation toward “primordial simplicity”, and a lived experience marked by “serene non-action”. Rooted in naturalness, this mode of self-cultivation not only offers a new theoretical framework for interpreting the ideal personality of the Daoist but also sheds light on the unique ethical significance of naturalness in Chinese philosophical discourse on morality.

1. Introduction

In Laozi and Zhuangzi, there exists a conception of a life realm that is inseparable from zhenzhi (true knowledge), which is understood not merely as an awareness of existence, but as a profound mode of being and an inner psychological state. Rather than being reducible to formal philosophical or moral systems, this life realm reflects an experiential and transformative dimension of Daoist thought.

The concept of Zhenren—Zhuangzi’s ideal personality—manifests through a rich constellation of terms such as “heaven and human,” “God and human,” “supreme human,” “sage,” “gentleman,” and “whole human” (CHAPTER 6 The Most Venerable Teacher). These expressions collectively illustrate a personality state that is profoundly attuned to the Dao. Associated figures such as “the one who escapes the void,” “the one who aligns with the ancient Way,” “the one who nourishes the body,” “the one who knows,” and “the virtuous person” (Wang et al. 1999) all highlight varying dimensions of Zhenren’s character. Even metaphorical references like the infant and the child are employed to emphasize innocence, spontaneity, and purity—core traits of the Dao-aligned individual. Ultimately, Zhenren aspires to become one with the Dao, to understand it, and to embody it through practice. This orientation entails both a deep reverence for natural law and necessity, and a transcendent freedom, xiaoyao (逍遥), or carefree wandering, which arises precisely from non-resistance and alignment with the rhythms of the cosmos.

In this light, the central theme of Zhuangzi may be seen as the transformation of the mind and consciousness (Allinson 1989). Furthermore, Xu opined that Zhuangzi’s thought represents the internalization of Laozi’s objective Dao into the lived realm of human life (Xu 1969); Mou Zongsan advances the notion of a “metaphysics of realm form,” while Yang Guorong proposes a “concrete metaphysics” to distinguish it from traditional ontological metaphysics. Regarding the characteristics of Daoist realm theory, Xu emphasizes that Zhuangzi’s thought transforms Laozi’s external, objective Dao into an inner existential experience (Xu 1969, p. 389). In a similar vein, Mou Zongsan contends that Daoist ontology can be understood as the “realm noumenon,” highlighting the metaphysical foundation inherent in the Daoist conception of realm (Mou 2010, p. 228). Chen Guiying points out that Laozi and Zhuangzi place different emphases on ontology and realm: whereas Laozi’s Dao carries a more weighty ontological and cosmological significance, Zhuangzi reinterprets it as an inward, mental realm (Chen 1992, p. 185).

Further extending this interpretation into the aesthetic dimension, Liu Shaojin comments that the experience and realm of “Dao” in Zhuangzi coincide with the aesthetic experience and realm of art (Liu 1989, p. 10). Similarly, Zheng Kai argues that the Daoist ideals of “forgetting things and forgetting the self” (物我两忘) and the freedom of “wandering with the Dao” (逍遥游) reflect an aesthetic mode of experience (Zheng 2019, p. 128). Even Western thinkers have been drawn to Zhuangzi’s notion of the life realm. Eric S. Nelson further notes that Zhuangzi’s conception of happiness differs from classical virtue ethics, instead emphasizing the cultivation of a good life through the ideals of wandering (you, 游) and skillful living (Nelson 2014). Taken together, these perspectives reveal that the Daoist theory of Laozi and Zhuangzi is both a system of knowledge and a way of practical cultivation. It unifies ontology and realm—that is, Dao as the foundation of life’s metaphysical structure is also the Dao that guides the formation of an ideal personality. In essence, this integrated realm of life can be referred to as a mode of “naturalness” (ziran, 自然).

2. The Unique Value of Zhuangzi’s Realm Theory from the Perspective of Comparative Philosophy

In recent years, many scholars have offered unique perspectives on the comparison between Zhuangzi and Western philosophy, as well as on the distinctive features of Zhuangzi’s thought and Chinese philosophy more broadly. Allinson compares Wittgenstein’s and Zhuangzi’s attitudes toward language, arguing that Eastern philosophy, exemplified by Zhuangzi, transcends the limitations of language (Allinson 2007). Dull explores the parallels between Zhuangzi and Thoreau in their views of nature, noting that the dynamic and ever-changing character of nature stands in contrast to the uniformity and rigidity of social and political life (Dull 2012). He emphasizes that Zhuangzi’s concept of “wandering” (you, 游) offers a unique lens through which to interpret freedom. Zhao contends that Western philosophy remains entangled in the tension between metaphysical subjectivity and the artificial pursuit of freedom, an impasse that Zhuangzi’s philosophy transcends through its exploration of self, non-self, and a more fluid conception of human freedom (Zhao 2012). Machek employs a cross-cultural comparative case study to highlight the contrasts between the Greco-Roman and Chinese intellectual traditions, identifying key differences between the rational/irrational duality in the Greco-Roman world and the artificial/natural dichotomy in Chinese thought (Machek 2015).

Between Chinese and Western philosophy, the philosophy of life reflects a fundamental tension between reason and nature as defining characteristics. Graham distinguishes between rational thinking and relational thinking, arguing that Laozi’s philosophy exemplifies a mode of thought that is profoundly antithetical to Western rationality (Graham 2003, p. 254). He sees Laozi as an intellectual masterpiece that stands in opposition to formal logic, a private, inward-looking philosophy that directly links individual life to the cosmos. This contrast is particularly evident in the comparison between the thought of Zhuangzi and Plato. Both philosophers present models of the ideal personality, Zhuangzi’s Zhenren (True Person) and Plato’s philosopher, but their orientations differ markedly. Zhenren represents the Dao of authentic humanity, characterized by a spontaneous unity with the Dao and a relaxed, natural mode of cultivation and practice. In contrast, Plato’s philosopher pursues truth through rational inquiry and occupies an intermediary position between the human and the divine. While Zhenren embodies harmony with nature and detachment from artificial constructs, the Platonic philosopher is guided by the ideal of reason and the rigorous search for knowledge.

This fundamental divergence between Zhuangzi’s Zhenren and Plato’s philosopher underscores not only different epistemological pursuits but also distinct ontologies of being. In contrast to Zhuangzi’s Zhenren, Plato’s conception of the ideal personality is embodied in the figure of the philosopher. As the spokesperson for Plato’s philosophy, Socrates emphasized that philosophers are those who possess a deep passion for truth, that is, they are lovers of wisdom. In Plato’s framework, the love of wisdom equates to the pursuit of truth and the desire to grasp the Ideas (Forms), which are not only the metaphysical archetypes of all things but also the normative standards for human behavior. Plato maintains that true philosophers are those who can cultivate and embody the cardinal virtues such as reason, justice, temperance, and courage in their lives. Among these, reason holds the highest place, revealing Plato’s rationalist orientation and his essentialist belief in truth and knowledge as the ultimate foundations of human existence.

Building on Plato’s emphasis on reason as the foundation of wisdom and truth, it can be observed that a fundamental difference in how life and reason are conceived within Chinese and Western philosophies. The natural basis of life in Daoism lies in the emptiness (xu) of the Dao and its infinite openness, whereas in Plato’s thought, the basis of reason in life is the knowledge of eternal Ideas (Forms). This contrast reveals two distinct modes of reason: the concrete reason of Chinese philosophy and the formal reason of Western philosophy (Meng 2004, p. 16). Meng argues that while Western rationalism has produced remarkable intellectual achievements, its excessive development risks alienating human beings, reducing them to mere instruments of reason (Meng 2004). In contrast, the rational spirit in Chinese philosophy is rooted in the integrity and unity of the mind—an inseparable whole of knowledge, being, and action. Hence, Chinese rationality is concrete rather than formal; it transcends the binary of rationality and irrationality and embodies a deeply humanistic ethos (Meng 2004, p. 16). This concrete reason does not exalt reason as the supreme principle; instead, it frames the ideal personality in terms of practical cognition and morality, presenting the whole human—a complete, embodied individual who harmonizes with nature. Accordingly, Zhuangzi’s vision does not place reason as the ultimate value but elevates the vibrant personality of nature itself as the highest ideal. Supporting this view, Watling emphasizes that nature is not merely material but also metaphysical, ontological, and axiological; it is both descriptive and prescriptive, transcending thought, language, and action (Watling 2009, p. 98).

In line with this understanding of nature as dynamic, multifaceted, and transcendent, Zhuangzi’s ideal personality, Zhenren, further embodies what may be called “the mobility of the subject”, or a fluid self. Whereas Plato’s philosopher is characterized by a commitment to stable truths and rational ideals, the Zhenren embodies a fluid and adaptive identity that responds to the spontaneous and ever-changing rhythms of the Dao. This fluidity allows Zhenren to manifest through various identity traits and personality forms, resisting any static definition. Wang, for instance, explores this conceptual openness by contrasting the Western notion of a stable “self” with the Daoist idea of “no self” (Wang 2017, p. 55). Drawing on Derrida’s deconstruction and Lacan’s psychoanalytic theory, Wang traces how Western interpretations of Zhuangzi have evolved from viewing him as a cognitive subject to reimagining him as a mystical, aesthetic, moral, and ultimately post-human subject (Wang 2017, p. 55). These shifting portrayals, from philosopher, religious thinker, and aesthetician to moralist and posthuman visionary, reveal a cyclical structure in Zhuangzi’s thought: a continual movement from “no self” to “having self,” and back again (Wang 2017, p. 55). Fundamentally, this reflects Zhuangzi’s philosophy of change, in which the ideal personality is not confined by rational norms or fixed models of what one should be. Rather, Zhenren embodies the capacity to adjust one’s state of life in accordance with the ever-unfolding “transformation” and “potential” inherent in nature itself.

3. The Natural Value of Zhuangzi’s Zhenren

In the context of Lao-Zhuang philosophy, the concept of “nature” (自然) can be developed into two core meanings. The first refers to the nature of the Dao, as expressed in phrases such as “The ways of Heaven follow those of the Dao; the ways of the Dao follow what is natural (道法自然)” and “Nature cannot be altered (自然不可易).” The second pertains to the nature of the Zhenren (the True Person), as illustrated in statements like “To assist all things in maintaining their nature (辅万物之自然)” and “Follow the natural course of things without selfish interference (顺物自然而无容私).” All things in heaven and earth possess their own inherent “natural” state, which implies that they reach a harmonious condition when aligned with the Dao. This harmony is not contingent on the distinctions made by cognitive subjects, but instead arises from objective regularity and order. At the same time, it also embodies an aesthetic resonance perceived by the subject. On this basis, the task of Daoist practitioners is to “follow the nature of things” in both understanding and action—meaning they must relinquish subjective assumptions and personal desires, and instead perceive things in their true and unadulterated state. As the Dao De Jing expresses: “That the ten thousand creatures may be restored to their nature (自然). This he does, but dares not act (圣人以辅万物之自然，而不敢为).” Similarly, Zhuangzi writes: “Let your mind wander in stillness, merge your breath with the vastness, follow the natural course of things, and leave no room for selfish intent (汝游心于淡，合气于漠，顺物自然而无容私焉)” (Competent Emperors and Kings, 应帝王). Thomas, in his exploration of Zhuangzi’s concept of “transformation,” recognized the profound relationship between nature and the body (Thomas 2005, pp. 119–20). He emphasized the experiential harmony between the physical self and the natural world as central to Zhuangzi’s thought.

In addition, Li observed that the “natural” qualities in Laozi can often be discerned through the frequent use of the prefix “zi- (自),” which denotes an inherent or self-arising quality (Li 2019, p. 23). Expanding on this, Bao referred to “Zi-X” constructions as expressions of Zhuangzi’s philosophy of spontaneity (ziran), emphasizing a realm of self-realization rooted in nature—one that encompasses cultivated self-awareness and the aesthetic freedom of both humans and all things (Bao 2011, p. 45). In this light, the connotation of “nature” (ziran) not only reflects the cosmological and ethical alignment with the Dao but also corresponds formally to a family of expressions using the “zi-” prefix, indicating a being or process that unfolds “as it is.” Representative examples include: “Heaven is naturally high, Earth is naturally thick, and the sun and moon are naturally bright (天之自高、地之自厚、日月之自明),” “All things will transform by themselves (万物将自化),” and “The world will regulate itself (天下将自定).” These expressions underscore a fundamental Daoist insight: true order and transformation emerge not from external imposition but from an inner spontaneity that follows the Dao.

3.1. The Nature of Zhenren Is Based on the Nature of Heaven and Earth as a Template

The kungfu theory of Zhuangzi’s Zhenren (True Person) cultivation follows an absolute orientation of action—that is, taking the Dao as the ultimate guiding principle. This orientation is rooted in the normative or prescriptive meaning of the Dao. The Dao is the foundational and governing principle of all existence; its influence on the world is invisible, subtle, and pervasive. The prescriptive nature of the Dao implies that all things under heaven follow stable patterns of operation and evolution. Each being possesses its own inherent value, namely independent, equal, and in accordance with its own natural course.

Building upon this understanding of the Dao as the prescriptive foundation of all things, Zhuangzi extends this principle to explore the relationship between human beings and the cosmos—what is traditionally referred to as the relationship between Heaven and humanity (天人关系). Zhuangzi’s conception of this relationship encompasses two key dimensions: the separation of Heaven and humanity, and their ultimate unity. The notion of separation itself contains two interpretive directions. First, “Heaven” and “man” represent the way of heaven and the way of human society, suggesting a distinction between two equally valid modes of existence. Second, “Heaven” symbolizes the Dao and vulgarity. In this sense, the two are opposing forces, akin to the tension between truth and illusion. Zhuangzi elaborates on this tension through several conceptual contrasts—such as the Dao-heart versus the ordinary mind, Daoist arts versus utilitarian techniques, Daoism versus vulgarity, and the Zhenren versus the common person. He critiques those who “act according to human constructs and neglect Heaven” (乘人而无天), thereby violating the natural order of the Dao. Against this backdrop, the ideal of the unity between Heaven and humanity emerges as the highest value orientation. This unity evolves from the ontological state of “the Dao is one” (道通为一) to the existential realization embodied by the Zhenren—one who “has the appearance of a human being but possesses a heart as vacant as Heaven” (人貌而天虚).

Laozi and Zhuangzi both distinguish the difference between the Dao of heaven and humanity. In Chapter 81 of the Dao De Jing, Laozi states: “The Dao of Heaven is beneficial but does not harm. The Dao of the sage is to act without contention (天之道，利而不害；圣人之道，为而不争).” Similarly, Zhuangzi elaborates:

“What do we mean by Dao? There is the Dao in the natural way and there is the Dao in the human way. To do nothing and yet command respect is the natural way of Dao while to do things and receive the trouble is the human way of Dao. The ruler should practise the natural way of Dao and the subjects should practise the human way of Dao. There is a world of difference between Dao in the natural way and Dao in the human way. The difference must be clearly distinguished. 何谓道？有天道，有人道。无为而尊者，天道也；有为而累者，人道也。主者，天道也；臣者，人道也。天道之与人道也，相去远矣，不可不察也”.

(Let Be and Let Alone, 在宥)

Both Laozi and Zhuangzi emphasize the crucial distinction between the natural order (Heaven’s Dao) and human constructs (the Dao of humanity), asserting that the Dao of Heaven serves as the foundation and ultimate standard for human conduct. In Zhuangzi, “Heaven” initially stands in opposition to “human,” symbolizing a transcendent order that governs and defines all things. Dao, as such, is referred to as the creator, the ultimate sovereign, and the shaping force behind all existence—concepts that align with the metaphorical meaning of Heaven. Thus, in Zhuangzi’s philosophical framework, “Heaven” becomes a metaphor for the Dao: “as if Heaven is the Dao (如天乃道),” and the Dao encompasses both Heaven and Earth (道兼于天). Within this cosmological structure, three essential relational dyads are examined in connection with Heaven: the relationship between Heaven and human, between Heaven and Earth, and between Heaven and all living things. These interconnections form the ontological and ethical backbone of Daoist cosmology.

In line with this cosmological view, Heaven is regarded as the ultimate standard of all things. But who stands behind the orderly movement and stable state of Heaven and Earth? The sky is in constant motion, the Earth remains still, the sun and moon follow their own trajectories, clouds gather and disperse, and the wind shifts direction, all occurring in a seamless and harmonious rhythm. What accounts for this intricate order? The answer lies in the understanding that Heaven possesses an internal organic structure and operates according to a law of permanence. It is precisely because Heaven embodies the highest orientation of righteousness and natural law that the Zhenren (True Person) in Daoist thought “takes Heaven as their father (以天为父)” and “takes Heaven as their teacher (以天为师).”

From a more holistic perspective, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos is further reflected in the integrated concept of the “Way of Heaven and Earth” and the “virtue of sages” (天地之道，圣人之德也). In the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi, virtue (德) primarily refers to the Dao inherent in each being. As Laozi says, “Dao gives them birth; virtue nurtures them” (道生之而德畜之). In this sense, every being possesses its own virtue, which signifies its alignment with the Dao—thus indicating that virtue is inseparable from the natural order established by the Dao. It is the Way of Heaven that provides the normative framework for humanity. Zhuangzi writes, “The sage understands the principles of all things according to the beauty of Heaven and Earth” (圣人者原天地之美而达万物之理), revealing that sages model their wisdom and actions on the harmonious patterns of the cosmos. This insight led to the thought of Zhenren doing nothing, which can be interpreted as doing something for human and doing nothing for heaven in the relationship between heaven and human.

The inactivity of the Way of Heaven serves as the fundamental philosophical basis for the non-action of sages, that is, it constitutes the ontological and existential foundation for the cultivation of the Zhenren (True Person). The essence of inaction is not passivity or complete withdrawal, but rather acting in accordance with the natural order—that is, acting in accordance with truth. Within the textual context of Laozi, wuwei can be specifically understood through concepts such as non-attachment to names (无名), non-interference in worldly affairs (无事), absence of desire (无欲), and transcendence of conventional knowledge (无知). It does not imply doing nothing at all, but rather avoiding excessive or artificial actions that deviate from the nature. Needham (1956, p. 48) identified Zhuangzi as a proto-scientific Daoist philosopher, and pointed out that, in the early Daoist framework with primitive scientific characteristics, wuwei means refraining from actions that violate the laws of nature. On the basis of inaction, the nature of all things—referred to as ziran (自然)—can fully emerge. This includes processes such as self-transformation (自化), self-correction (自正), self-enrichment (自富), and self-simplicity (自朴). In Zhuangzi’s philosophical system, individuals can attain self-cultivation and contentment—becoming self-righteous, self-satisfied, self-comfortable, and ultimately carefree—precisely by doing nothing that contradicts the Dao. The nature of human beings, in this sense, is the return to one’s original nature, which reflects the unity of human and Dao, and it embodies a mode of existence in harmony with the cosmos.

3.2. The Nature of Zhenren Can Be Called to the Vast and the Subtle 致广大而尽精微

The vast realm of the Zhenren (True Person) mirrors the boundless expanse of the Dao, and it can be specifically articulated through four key concepts: Da (大, greatness), Quan (全, wholeness), Bei (备, completeness), and Zu (足, sufficiency). The Zhenren embodies cosmic vastness and magnanimity (bo da 博大), manifests the plenitude and harmony of Heaven and Earth (bei yu tiandi 备于天地), adheres firmly to the Dao with perfected virtue (zhi dao er de quan 执道而德全), and achieves innate fulfillment through non-intervention (wu shi er xing zu 无事而性足).

First, within the context of Laozi and Zhuangzi, Da (大) primarily denotes the vastness of the Dao and the expansive realm of the Zhenren (True Person). The term Da is illustrated by the phrase: “The Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and the ruler is also great” (道大，天大，地大，王亦大), emphasizing the cosmic magnitude shared by all these entities. Li argues that the name Da reflects the fundamental inclusiveness of the Dao—that the Great Dao is called “great” because it encompasses all potentialities hidden within all things; it is “great” because it generates all beings; and it is “great” because it preserves the values of all things (Li 2015, p. 132). Similarly, the great realm of the Zhenren is expressed in the notion of the ancient great person—gu zhi bo da zhen ren (古之博大真人)—emphasizing boundless wisdom and magnitude. This focus on the wholeness and completeness of both Dao and Zhenren is a hallmark of Zhuangzi’s philosophy. As Martin Buber insightfully explains, knowledge cannot arise from a fragmented state; only the whole person, undivided and inseparable from the world, can truly know. Such a person perceives the world without falling into a confrontational dualism between subject and object. Knowledge, therefore, exists only in the unity of the whole. In Buber’s words, “Unity is knowledge” (Buber 1991, p. 98).

Second, the original meaning of Quan (全) is integrity and wholeness, which further extends to notions of being intact, complete, and pure. In Zhuangzi’s philosophy, the concept of wholeness is developed along two main themes: the wholeness of the Dao and the wholeness of the Zhenren (True Person). The wholeness of the Dao is often referred to as the great perfection of Heaven and Earth (tiandi da quan 天地大全), signifying the complete and harmonious order of the cosmos. Correspondingly, the integrity of the Zhenren is expressed through three dimensions: the integrity of virtue (de quan 德全), the integrity of mind or spirit (shen quan 神全), and the integrity of the body (xing quan 形全).

Third, the original meaning of Bei (备) refers to the quiver used to hold arrows, symbolizing fullness and readiness. From this concrete image, the concept extends to signify preparedness and completeness. In the context of Dao, this readiness is described as the great preparation (da bei 大备), reflecting that “everything is complete when viewed from the perspective of the Dao” (以道泛观而万物之应备). Correspondingly, the preparedness of the Zhenren is expressed in the notion that the ancient sages were perfectly equipped and complete (gu zhi ren bei 古之人备).

Fourth, the original meaning of Zu (足) generally refers to the hooves or paws of animals, as well as the roots or supporting bases of plants and objects. From this concrete image, its meaning extends to signify sufficiency, contentment, and completeness. This original sense clearly explains the state-oriented concept of being “footed” and contentment as described by Zhuangzi—that is, taking the Dao as the foundation represents the nature of being “footed” (zu). A concrete expression of the Dao’s sufficiency is found in the phrase: “The world is full without desire” (无欲而天下足), highlighting that true contentment arises from the absence of craving. The Zu of the Zhenren is especially embodied in their deep sense of contentment. Both Laozi and Zhuangzi use several expressions to illustrate this contentment, such as the following: “He who has once known the contentment that comes simply through being content, will never again be otherwise than contented” (知足之足常足矣), and “A contented person does not burden themselves with profit” (知足者不以利自累). The contentment of the Zhenren is grounded in a profound understanding of self-sufficiency; thus, they experience no sense of lack or deficiency, nor do they feel compelled to artificially compensate for any so-called innate shortcomings. Simultaneously, without a strong desire to possess born from deficiency, they remain free from being ensnared by material desires.

The subtle realm of the Zhenren mirrors the subtle realm of the Dao, and it can be specifically articulated through four key concepts: Xu (虚, vacuity), Kong (空, emptiness), Tong (同, unity), and Yi (一, oneness). These terms reflect different dimensions of the Zhenren’s alignment with the Dao: they embody celestial vacuity in appearance (ren mao tian xu 人貌天虚), infuse physical form with cosmic emptiness (xing chong kong xu 形充空虚), merge with the Great Thoroughfare (tong yu da tong 同于大通), and ultimately achieve oneness with Heaven (yu tian wei yi 与天为一).

First, Xu (虚), in the context of Zhuangzi, refers to the fundamental state of the Dao: “唯道集虚” (“Only the Dao gathers in vacuity”). This concept unfolds into both the emptiness of the Dao and the emptiness of the Zhenren. At its core, the Xu of the Dao signifies a state of vital emptiness that remains open and responsive: “气也者，虚而待物者也。唯道集虚” (“Qi is emptiness that awaits all things; only the Dao gathers in vacuity”). Correspondingly, the Xu of the Zhenren is described as “其为人也真。人貌而天虚，缘而葆真，清而容物” (“He is authentic; he has the appearance of a person but a heart as empty as the heavens. He follows the natural course and preserves his true nature; he is pure and accommodating to all things”). This Xu represents the Zhenren’s ability to empty the heart of obsession, allowing one to perceive and respond to the world with clarity and receptivity.

Second, the original meaning of Kong (空) refers to the emptiness of a hole, concrete and physical in nature. Over time, it evolved to signify abstract emptiness or void, particularly in the context of Buddhist philosophy, where it conveys the idea of “emptiness of inherent nature through dependent origination” (yuanqi xingkong 缘起性空). However, in the context of Zhuangzi, Kong does not mean absolute nothingness. Rather, it signifies an emptiness that is full of potential—an emptiness that contains all possibilities. It is precisely through Kong that boundless openness and transformation become possible. Thus, emptiness is not a negation but the precondition for infinity; only in emptiness can true freedom and limitless becoming emerge.

Third, the original meaning of Tong (同) is association or convergence, which later extends to signify similarity, sameness, or unity. In the context of Zhuangzi, the notion of Tong is developed through the parallel concepts of the Dao’s “sameness” and the Zhenren’s “sameness.” For Dao, Tong manifests in terms such as Tongde (同德, sharing the same virtue) and Tongdao (同道, walking the same path), suggesting harmony and resonance with the fundamental principles of the cosmos.

Fourth, Yi (一) as an abstract concept represents not only the most subtle point of origin or an individual unit but also a state of unified wholeness. In Zhuangzi’s philosophy, it conveys the fundamental idea that “the Dao is One” (道通为一). Scholar Bao interprets this Oneness of Dao as the intimate interconnection between all forms of existence, where both self and other, subject and object, are forgotten and transformed within the broader environment. This reflects an aesthetic pursuit of harmony between humanity and nature, as well as a critique of the alienation between the two brought about by science and technology. More specifically, the Oneness of Dao in Zhuangzi implies the transcendence of opposites such as life and death, being and non-being, right and wrong, dissolving all relative distinctions and enabling a holistic vision of heaven and earth. On this basis, the Zhenren (True Person) can “embrace the One” (抱一), “become one with Heaven” (与天为一), and “regard all things as one” (将磅礴万物以为一). In essence, the Zhenren lives in constant immersion within the totality of Dao, effortlessly aligned with its unity and infinite transformation.

4. The Self-Realm of Zhuangzi’s Zhenren

The self-realization of Zhuangzi’s Zhenren (True Person) can be interpreted through five dimensions: body, emotion, cognition, will, and transcendence. Physiologically, a dynamic balance between qi (vital energy) and spirit can be attained through embodied practices such as “embracing the spirit and resting in stillness” (baoshen yijing 抱神以静), which serves as the material foundation for regulating emotions. Emotionally, the cultivation of inner calmness and simplicity (pingyi tiandan 平易恬淡) dispels emotional disturbances, allowing the mind to return to a state of serene clarity. This purification of emotions lays the groundwork for cognitive awakening. In the cognitive dimension, the breakthrough lies in accessing the “original understanding of the ancient beginning” (neng zhi gushi 能知古始), wherein one transcends the veil of conventional knowledge and returns to an innate, primordial wisdom. The dimension of will is characterized by a non-coercive autonomy, where intentional actions arise naturally, without force, forming the basis for transcendental practice. Ultimately, in the transcendental dimension, the Zhenren achieves unity with nature, allowing the individual’s life energy (qi) to resonate in harmony with the Dao. This culminates in a state of being “alone in communion with the spirit of heaven and earth” (du yu tiandi zhi ling 独与天地精神往来), a realization of complete existential harmony. Burton summarizes the essence of Zhuangzi’s ideal as one of freedom—freedom from worldly entanglements, a liberation of the self. This is the highest expression of the Zhenren’s self-realm (Watson 2013, p. ix).

4.1. Harmonious Integration of Body and Spirit: Tranquility, Equanimity, and Receptive Clarity

The Zhenren’s state of peace of mind can be further elaborated through four key concepts: Zheng (正), Ping (平), Qing (清), and Jing (静). These embody a refined psychological and spiritual equilibrium. Specifically, the Zhenren achieves unburdened uprightness and inner balance (wulei zhengping 无累正平), embodies serene simplicity and tranquil detachment (pingyi tiandan 平易恬淡), manifests clarity that embraces all things (qing er rong wu 清而容物), and embraces the spirit through profound stillness (baoshen yijing 抱神以静).

First, as an adjective, Zheng (正) denotes a state of alignment with the Dao—that is, only the Dao is truly “right,” and to be in harmony with the Dao is to be “right.” As a verb, Zheng implies acting in accordance with the standards of the Dao—in other words, to engage with all things through the perspective and principles of the Dao. In contemporary usage, this original meaning is best preserved in expressions such as “the right way.” As a state of being, the most fundamental meaning of Zheng lies in the idea that the Dao constitutes the Zheng of Heaven and Earth (tiandi zhi zheng 天地之正) and the highest rectitude under Heaven (tianxia zhi zhizheng 天下之至正). This means that the Dao alone can serve as the ultimate measure for distinguishing right from wrong in all things. The “right way” (zhengdao) manifests differently across diverse forms of life, giving rise to various expressions and pathways. For example, in the chapter “On the Uniformity of All Things” (Qi Wu Lun 齐物论), Zhuangzi illustrates how different beings have different preferences and standards for space, taste, and color, indicating that while expressions of Zheng may differ, their foundation in Dao remains constant. When Zheng is taken as an active practice, it reflects the cultivated state and ethical orientation of the Zhenren. In the Zhuangzi, this is articulated through phrases such as correcting oneself (zheng ji 正己), correcting the body (zheng shen 正身), correcting the mind (zheng xin 正心), and correcting virtue (zheng de 正德). These represent the internal moral and existential alignment with the Dao, forming a foundation for the Zhenren’s peaceful and upright way of being.

Second, the original meaning of Ping (平) refers to a state of smoothness, evenness, and peace. In the Zhuangzi, the most fundamental implication of Ping lies in its function as a natural standard or reference point, expressed metaphorically as “When water comes to rest, it becomes level” (shui ting ze ping 水停则平). This image illustrates the natural, undisturbed state of water, which symbolically aligns with the nature of the Dao. The inherent Ping of the Dao, as well as the Ping in all things, resonates with the tranquil state of the Zhenren, who is described as plain and calm (pingyi tiandan 平易恬淡). If the peacefulness of the Zhenren’s mind is likened to the stillness of water, then one can discern the spiritual realm that such tranquility reveals. In other words, the calmness of the Zhenren reflects an inner equilibrium, in which the mind remains stable, neither disturbed nor shaken by external influences or shifting circumstances. This serene and undisturbed inner quietude is not only the nature of the Zhenren but also the result of cultivated effort. Moreover, the Ping of the Zhenren serves as the foundation for two further states: Qing (清, clarity) and Jing (静, stillness). These emerge naturally from inner peace, forming a continuous progression in the spiritual cultivation of the Zhenren.

Third, in the context of Zhuangzi, Qing (清) can be interpreted from two interrelated dimensions: the Qing of the Dao and the Qing of the Zhenren. The Qing of the Dao is reflected in the phrase “Heaven is clear and the earth is tranquil” (tian qing di ning 天清地宁), expressing a cosmic order that is pure, undisturbed, and harmonious. Correspondingly, the Qing of the Zhenren is embodied in the description “clear and accommodating toward all things” (qing er rong wu 清而容物), suggesting an inner clarity that enables openness and inclusiveness. The Zhenren maintains this clarity because their mind is stable, untroubled by emotional turbulence or external distractions. Qing thus signifies a state of inner purity, free from the impurities of desire, prejudice, and delusion. It also connotes a form of spiritual wakefulness: to be qing is to be lucid, self-aware, and responsive without being reactive. In this sense, the Qing of the Zhenren represents both a purified mind and an awakened state of being that aligns with the natural clarity of the Dao.

Fourth, the original meaning of Jing (静) is “quiet,” which extends to meanings such as calmness and peacefulness. Jing is a key concept in Zhuangzi’s thought, exemplified in expressions like “as quiet as a mirror” (qi jing ruo jing 其静若镜). The stillness of the Zhenren refers primarily to the stillness of the inner mind and the time of inner cultivation, rather than mere external behavioral calmness. Fundamentally, this state reflects the Zhenren’s ability to integrate with the environment of heaven and earth, achieving an openness that transcends the self and remains undisturbed by external circumstances. However, this transcendence does not imply the dissolution of self or ego; rather, it enables true reflection, independence, and freedom. Moreover, the contrast between qualities such as positive versus biased, flat versus swinging, clear versus miscellaneous, clear versus turbid, static versus impetuous, and static versus dynamic highlights the tension and philosophical value in Zhuangzi’s thought. In this relational spectrum, the “positive,” “flat,” “clear,” and “quiet” of the Zhenren’s realm correspond to the absence of bias, fluctuation, clutter, turbidity, and agitation. This means the Zhenren can maintain a peaceful, stable background state, consistently calm amid external changes. Importantly, this does not imply that the Zhenren’s heart is unmoved or that the Zhenren refrains from action. What Zhuangzi emphasizes is that human impulsiveness and reckless behavior require a correcting and balancing force—namely the power of returning to nature amid the boundless expansion of life’s will.

4.2. Primordial Authenticity in Cognition: Purity of Essence and Uncarved Simplicity

The simple state of the Zhenren can be articulated through four key concepts: Chun (纯), Su (素), Gu (古), and Pu (朴). That is, the Zhenren embodies a spirit of pure simplicity (qi shen chuncui 其神纯粹), perceives and embraces the unadorned primordial nature (jian su bao pu 见素抱朴), understands the ancient origins (neng zhi gu shi 能知古始), and through refinement returns to pristine simplicity (diao zhuo fu pu 雕琢复朴).

First, Chun (纯) symbolizes the natural and original state within Zhuangzi’s philosophy, where the purity of Dao is reflected in the purity of heaven and earth (tiandi zhi chun 天地之纯). The spirit of the Zhenren is pure and unadulterated (chuncui er bu za 纯粹而不杂).

Second, the original meaning of Su (素) refers to natural, undyed silk, which metaphorically extends to signify natural color, whiteness, essence, and simplicity. In Zhuangzi’s text, it is stated: “Because of simplicity, the world cannot compete in beauty” (pusu er tianxia mo neng yu zhi mei 朴素而天下莫能与之争美). The simplicity of the Zhenren reflects their ability to maintain a moderate distance from personal desires and will, demonstrating measured restraint. As it is said, “Though ignorant, they did not lose their virtue; though desireless, they remained in a state of natural simplicity like uncarved timber, preserving their innate nature” (tong hu wu zhi, qi de bu li; tong hu wu yu, shi wei su pu. Su pu er min xing de yi 同乎无知，其德不离；同乎无欲，是谓素朴。素朴而民性得矣) (The Hooves of Horses, 马蹄).

Third, Gu (古) means ancient, as opposed to the present. Within the context of Zhuangzi’s thought, the ancient can be understood both temporally—as the earliest time—and logically—as the original principle—since only the Dao is truly the most ancient. The connection between the ancient and the Dao is directly expressed in the text, for example, “ancient Dao” (古之道), which fundamentally signifies that the Dao has been preserved since antiquity (dao zi gu yi gu cun 道自古以固存). Therefore, the Zhenren is also described as an ancient person (gu zhi ren 古之人). In essence, the ancient person is one who experiences the Dao, conforms to it, and follows the natural order of all things in every aspect. Notably, the distinction between the Zhenren and ordinary people is often likened to the difference between ancient and modern persons.

Fourth, Pu (朴) originally refers to unprocessed wood, simple, plain, and natural. In the context of Zhuangzi’s thought, it symbolizes naturalness and original simplicity. First, the Pu of Dao is described as nameless simplicity (wu ming zhi pu 无名之朴), illustrated by the phrase: “When primal simplicity differentiates, it becomes vessels” (pu san ze wei qi 朴散则为器). Second, the simplicity of the Zhenren signifies a return to this natural, unadorned state (fugui yu pu 复归于朴), a restoration to primordial simplicity.

4.3. Autonomous Harmony with Cosmic Vitality: Cultivation of Serene Knowledge and Merging with the Subtle Breath

Zhenren’s state of freedom can be specifically expressed through four terms: Tian (恬), Dan (淡), Ji (寂), and Mo (漠). That is, the Zhenren cultivates a mutual nourishment of knowledge and serenity (zhi tian xiang yang 知恬相养), embraces a boundless and tranquil equanimity (dan ran wu ji 淡然无极), dwells in stillness characterized by pure clarity (ji hu ruo qing 寂乎若清), and harmonizes vital breath with the vastness of the cosmos (he qi yu mo 合气于漠). In Zhuangzi’s chapter A Strained Mind, the Zhenren is described as follows: “Indifference, solitude, emptiness, and non-action—these are the measures of heaven and earth, and the perfection of Dao and virtue. 夫恬淡寂漠，虚无无为，此天地之平而道德之质也” (A Strained Mind, 刻意). In other words, each word carries profound meaning.

First, Tian (恬) originally refers to placing the mind on the tongue to savor sweetness, symbolizing a focused and concentrated experience that brings peace of mind. In the context of Zhuangzi, Tian is further developed as the cultivation of knowledge and serenity in mutual nourishment—知恬相养.

Second, in the context of Zhuangzi, Dan (淡) primarily refers to the Dao’s state of indifference and naturalness, as expressed in the phrase “淡然无极而众美从之”—boundless equanimity to which all beauty naturally follows. Building on this, the state of the Zhenren (True Person) is described as wandering the mind in serene detachment—游心于淡. Moreover, the Zhenren’s sense of Dan differs from the common sweetness (Gan 甘) valued by ordinary people, as illustrated by the saying: “The friendship of superior men is as natural and plain as water, whereas the friendship of inferior men is as sweet as wine. 君子之交淡若水，小人之交甘若醴。君子淡以亲，小人甘以绝，彼无故以合者，则无故以离” (A Mountain Tree, 山木). This highlights the pure, unforced nature of the superior human’s relationship, rooted in simplicity and sincerity rather than superficial sweetness.

Third, Ji (寂) in Zhuangzi is specifically developed to denote the silence of both the Dao and the Zhenren. The Dao is described as silent and formless—寂漠无形—while the Zhenren’s expression is one of stillness—真人容寂. This silence signifies the profound independence and self-sufficiency of both the Dao and the True Person.

Fourth, the original meaning of Mo (漠) refers to quicksand and the northern deserts, which later extends metaphorically to a state of vast indifference and boundlessness. In Zhuangzi, phrases such as 广漠之野 (vast desert wilderness) and 大漠之国 (desert country) symbolize the Dao’s expansive nature. The Mo of the Zhenren is embodied in the following: “Let your mind wander freely in pure nature, remain inactive, follow the natural course, and relinquish personal will. 汝游心于淡，合气于漠，顺物自然而无容私焉。”This captures the Zhenren’s seamless harmony with the cosmic vastness and spontaneous flow of the natural world.

Overall, the calmness, lightness, silence, and detachment of the Zhenren reflect a convergent yet liberated spiritual realm—one that stands in contrast to the ordinary person’s impulse to expand desires and impose personal will. Unlike those who seek to bind themselves to people, possessions, and ambitions—or even to conquer them—the Zhenren remains non-contentious, lives humbly, and finds joy in solitude.

5. Conclusions

To sum up, the concept of “nature” (自然) in Zhuangzi is not a fixed or standardized state. Rather, each manifestation of nature can unfold into countless existing states—those of the Dao, of things, and of the Zhenren—all displaying infinite variations. The consistent criterion for determining what is truly natural lies in whether a state arises spontaneously from the internal nature of the being itself. This spontaneous emergence is the force of being—an ontological power. Therefore, the principle of nature does not imply that all things in heaven and earth conform to a single, uniform law, but instead refers to an organically structured, dynamic order that corresponds to the tangible world. Based on this understanding, Zhuangzi proposes a circular relationship between non-action (无为) and naturalness (自然): non-action is naturalness. Importantly, non-action does not mean passivity or doing nothing, but rather refraining from imposing human will upon the natural course of things and avoiding actions that are excessive or contrary to what is innate. From this arises the notion of self-transformation without forceful intervention, meaning that only through non-doing can the nature of things emerge. This nature is expressed in forms such as self-transformation (自化), self-correction (自正), self-fulfillment (自得), and self-simplicity (自朴). On this basis, the nature of the human being is achieved when one becomes unified with the Dao, expressing a unique and spontaneous mode of existence that is true to one’s inner nature. This research demonstrates Zhenren’s self-realization as a dialectical unity of natural spontaneity and ontological transcendence.