The Study of Practice in the Vehicles of Men and Gods and the Bodhisattva Vehicle: Perspectives from Master Taixu to Master Hsing Yun

Abstract

This paper explores the perspectives of Master Taixu (太虛, 1890–1947) and Master Hsing Yun (星雲, 1927–2023) on the practice of the Buddhist Five Vehicles (五乘), particularly focusing on the relationship between the Vehicles of Men and Gods (人天乘) and the Bodhisattva Vehicle (菩薩乘). Master Taixu advocated “Buddhism for Human Life” (人生佛教), emphasizing the improvement of real life as the foundation for Buddhist practice in daily life. He proposed the principle of “following the practice and fruition of the Human Vehicle to cultivate the Mahāyāna path” (依人乘行果，趣修大乘行), suggesting a gradual progression from the human vehicle to the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva path. He introduced the concept of “The perfection of human character leads to Buddhahood” (人圓佛即成) and “Present Bodhisattva Practice” (今菩薩行), highlighting the importance of adapting Buddhist practice to contemporary society and actively engaging in social service. Master Hsing Yun’s advocacy of “Humanistic Buddhism” (人間佛教) emphasizes the diversity of practice, asserting that any action aligned with Buddhist teachings, beneficial to human well-being, and conducive to the welfare of all beings constitutes a form of practice, thereby expanding its definition. He elaborated on the Five Vehicles, viewing the Vehicle of Men and Gods as a preliminary stage, advocating a gradual progression towards the Bodhisattva Vehicle, ultimately culminating in Buddhahood. He proposed the principle of “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset” (以出世的思想，做入世的事業), highlighting the importance of practicing the Bodhisattva path in everyday life. With “Buddha Light Pure Land” (佛光淨土) as the ultimate goal, he sought to integrate the essence of various Pure Lands traditions to achieve earthly peace and purification. Both masters highlight the importance of practicing Humanistic Buddhism, advocating for the application of the Bodhisattva practice in daily life, guiding all beings with compassion and wisdom, and actively engaging in society to address real-world issues, ultimately realizing a Humanistic Pure Land. However, their perspectives also differ: Master Taixu focused more on the theoretical construction and an exposition on the order of practice, whereas Master Hsing Yun placed greater emphasis on the diversity and flexibility of practice and the integration of Buddhist teachings into modern life.

1. Introduction

Academic research on Master Taixu (太虛, 1890–1947) and Master Hsing Yun (星雲, 1927–2023) has yielded numerous scholarly findings, with extensive and in-depth discussions on their teachings. However, within the overall works of these two masters, the concept of the “Vehicles of Men and Gods” (人天乘) stands out as one that is both theoretical and practical in nature. Despite its foundational role, the practical application of this vehicle remains a source of confusion.

Drawing on Master Taixu’s early formulation of “Buddhism for Human Life” (人生佛教) and Master Hsing Yun’s later articulation of “Humanistic Buddhism” (人间佛教), the core idea centers on a human-centered, engaged Buddhism (入世佛教), aligning with the spirit of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path. However, questions remain regarding how Buddhist practice based on the human experience can ultimately lead to Buddhahood. Some have expressed concerns about unintentionally falling into the “Vehicles of Men and Gods”, viewing Buddhism for Human Life as merely the practice of this path. It was not until Master Hsing Yun’s active promotion of Humanistic Buddhism that people gradually came to recognize the true Bodhisattva nature inherent in it. As a result, practitioners of Humanistic Buddhism have come to clearly oppose seeing it as the Vehicles of Men and Gods, but the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path. Although there is a rich body of literature on Humanistic Buddhism, little attention—particularly in English-language literature—has been paid to how the Five Vehicles framework is employed by Taixu and Hsing Yun to articulate a path from human-based practice to the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva ideal. This article seeks to fill this gap by offering a focused analysis of their views on the relationship between the Vehicles of Men and Gods and the Bodhisattva Vehicle (菩薩乘). The focus will be on analyzing the practical aspects of Humanistic Buddhism and its relationship with the “Vehicles of Men and Gods”, uncovering existing doubts and misconceptions. Furthermore, this study will examine the cultivation of the “Bodhisattva Path”, considering the challenges in transitioning from the Vehicles of Men and Gods to the Bodhisattva Vehicle, and exploring their practical differences and implications.

2. The Meaning of the Buddhist Five Vehicles

In order to contextualize the perspectives of Master Taixu and Master Hsing Yun within the broader Chinese Buddhist tradition, this section provides an overview of how the Five Vehicles have been defined and interpreted by Buddhist teachers from the imperial and early Republican periods. By reviewing traditional doctrinal classifications and key interpretations of the Five Vehicles—especially the Vehicles of Men and Gods—this section lays the theoretical groundwork for understanding later developments in Humanistic Buddhist thought and its emphasis on practical engagement with the Bodhisattva Path. The term ”vehicle” (chéng 乘) in the context of the Five Vehicles (wǔ chéng 五乘) refers to the means of transport, representing five different methods by which sentient beings are guided toward higher states of existence. The Sanskrit term “yāna” can be translated as path, boat, carriage, or means of transport, symbolizing how various Buddhist teachings function like vehicles that help sentient beings reach their desired spiritual destination. Additionally, yāna is transliterated as “yǎn” (衍) in Chinese, hence the Five Vehicles are also called the Five Yānas (Lan 1994, pp. 968–69). For example, the Sanskrit term for the “Tathāgata Vehicle” is buddha-yāna, while the “Great Vehicle” is mahā-yāna, and the “Peerless Vehicle” is an-uttara-yāna. The Five Vehicles are classified in various ways, including:

• (i) Buddha Vehicle (佛乘), (ii) Vehicle of the Solitary Realizers (辟支佛乘) (Pratyekabuddha Vehicle緣覺乘), (iii) Śrāvaka Vehicle (聲聞乘), (iv) Vehicle of Gods (天乘), (v) Vehicle of Humans (人乘)
• (i) Buddha Vehicle, (ii) Bodhisattva Vehicle, (iii) Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, (iv) Śrāvaka Vehicle, (v) Vehicles of Men and Gods
• (i) Buddha Vehicle, (ii) Bodhisattva Vehicle, (iii) Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, (iv) Śrāvaka Vehicle, (v) Lesser Vehicle (小乘referring to the Vehicles of Men and Gods) (Huayan yisheng jiao fenqi zhang)
• (i) Buddha Vehicle, (ii) Pure Vehicle (Bodhisattva Vehicle), (iii) Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, (iv) Śrāvaka Vehicle, (v) Vehicle of Gods (Huayan yisheng jiao fenqi zhang)
• (i) The One Vehicle (Buddha Vehicle), (ii) Three Vehicles (Śrāvaka Vehicle, Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, Bodhisattva Vehicle), (iii) Lesser Vehicle (Vehicles of Men and Gods) (Huayan Wujiao zhang)
• (i) Tathāgata Vehicle (諸佛如來乘), (ii) Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, (iii) Śrāvaka Vehicle, (iv) Pure Vehicle (梵乘), (v) Vehicle of Gods (Leng qie jing)
• (i) Peerless Vehicle (無上乘), (ii) Various Vehicles (種種乘), (iii) Vehicle of Solitary Buddhas, (iv) Śrāvaka Vehicle, (v) Vehicles of Men and Gods (Cheng zan da cheng gong de jing)
• (i) Bodhisattva Vehicle, (ii) Vehicle of the Solitary Realizers (Pratyekabuddha Vehicle), (iii) Solitary Realizerʼs Vehicle (獨覺乘), (iv) Vehicle of Gods, (v) Vehicle of Humans (Yu lan pen jing shu)

From these various classifications of the “Five Vehicles”, it is clear to those familiar with Buddhist teachings that the “Vehicles of Men and Gods” encompasses both the human vehicle and the vehicle of gods. These two categories of sentient beings are specifically addressed within the framework of the Five Vehicles. The above classifications highlight the fundamental meaning of “yāna” and its application in Buddhist doctrine, along with its corresponding Sanskrit translations. Furthermore, they clarify the significance of the Vehicles of Men and Gods and its position within the Five Vehicles, providing essential background for further discussions on Buddhist practice.

It is important to note that the Buddha Vehicle and the Bodhisattva Vehicle are often merged into a single category. When the Buddha Vehicle is acknowledged, the Bodhisattva Vehicle does not need to be separately mentioned, and vice versa. This is because the Bodhisattva Vehicle inherently represents the path leading to the Buddha Vehicle, with the ultimate goal of Bodhisattva practice being the attainment of Buddhahood. The “Bodhisattva Vehicle” can also be referred to as the Mahāyāna, Buddha Vehicle, or Tathāgata Vehicle, symbolizing the aspiration to attain supreme enlightenment and liberate all sentient beings through the practice of the Six Perfections and myriad virtuous deeds.

On the other hand, the “Vehicles of Men and Gods” combines the vehicle of human and gods because both pertain to ordinary beings, and thus they are collectively labeled as the “Lesser Vehicle” (xiǎo chéng). It is important to distinguish this from the later classification of Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna, in which the Lesser Vehicle included the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles. Generally, the Buddha Vehicle and the Bodhisattva Vehicle are grouped together, while the Vehicles of Men and Gods forms another distinct category. Additionally, the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle and the Vehicle of Solitary Realizers are synonymous.

Meanwhile, the Buddha Vehicle is also referred to as the “One Vehicle” (yī chéng), the “Tathāgata Vehicle”, or the “Peerless Vehicle”. The “One Vehicle” signifies the singular path to Buddhahood, leading sentient beings to the ultimate realization of nirvāṇa. The Flower Ornament Sūtra (Huayan jing) and the Lotus Sūtra (Fahua jing) emphasize that all sentient beings have the potential to attain Buddhahood, thus affirming the Buddha Vehicle without further division into two or three separate vehicles. Furthermore, the “Tathāgata Vehicle” employs the practice of the Six Perfections to transport sentient beings to the ultimate goal of nirvāṇa. This aligns with the “Bodhisattva Vehicle”, which is why the “Bodhisattva Vehicle” is sometimes referred to as the “Tathāgata Vehicle”.

In his Commentary on the Ullambana Sūtra (Fo Shuo Yu Lan Pen Jing Shu), the Huayan master Zongmi (宗密, 780–841 CE) provides the following explanation of the Five Vehicles:

“The Five Vehicles are named as such because they serve as means of transport. The five categories include men, gods, Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, and Bodhisattva. These five differ in the extent of their power and the distances they traverse. (i) The Vehicle of men involves taking refuge in the Three Jewels and observing the Five Precepts (三歸五戒), enabling beings to transcend the three lower realms and be reborn as humans. This is akin to a small raft that merely crosses a stream. (ii) The Vehicle of Gods is based on practicing the Ten Wholesome Deeds (十善) at an advanced level, along with mastering the Four Dhyanas and the Eight Samadhis (四禪八定), allowing beings to transcend the four continents and reach the heavenly realms. This is like a small boat that crosses a minor river. (iii) The Śrāvaka Vehicle is based on the Four Noble Truths (四聖諦) and leads practitioners beyond the Three Realms, attaining either the Nirvāṇa of Residual Existence or the Nirvāṇa of No Remainder, culminating in the attainment of Arhatship. This is like a great ship crossing a vast river. (iv) The Pratyekabuddha Vehicle follows the doctrine of the Twelvefold dependent arising (十二因緣), enabling practitioners to transcend the Three Realms (三界) and attain the realization of Arhatship and Pratyekabuddhahood. This, too, resembles a large vessel crossing a mighty river. (v) The Bodhisattva Vehicle is based on the compassionate and wise practice of the Six Perfections (六波羅蜜), carrying all sentient beings beyond the Three Realms and the three lower vehicles, ultimately leading them to supreme enlightenment and perfect nirvāṇa. This is like a great ocean liner traversing the vast sea.”

(Zongmi 1924–1934, p. 506b4-14)

Zongmi summarized the cultivation methods of the Five Vehicles as follows: the Vehicle of men follows the precepts of the Five Precepts to be reborn in the human realm; the Vehicle of Gods adheres to the Ten Wholesome Deeds to be reborn in the heavenly realms; the Śrāvaka Vehicle is based on the Four Noble Truths and leads to the attainment of Arhatship; the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle follows the doctrine of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination and results in the realization of Pratyekabuddhahood; and the Bodhisattva Vehicle relies on the Six Perfections to achieve the supreme Buddhahood. Each of the Five Vehicles has distinct paths and practices, ranging from worldly morality to transcendental states, with the ultimate goal of guiding sentient beings toward liberation and the attainment of Buddhahood. This structured approach highlights the diversity and depth of Buddhist practice while emphasizing the necessity of striving for liberation.

Zongmi further elaborated that the practice of the Vehicles of Men and Gods focuses on the Five Precepts and the Ten Wholesome Deeds. Those who uphold the Five Precepts are regarded as “good people,” accumulating the merits necessary for rebirth as humans in their future lives, which is why this path is called the “Vehicle of Men”. On the other hand, those who broadly cultivate the Ten Wholesome Deeds can attain rebirth in the heavenly realms, hence it is called the “Vehicle of Gods”. The remaining three vehicles are intended to guide practitioners beyond the cycle of rebirth and transcend worldly existence. However, these aspects of Buddhist practice are relatively difficult for ordinary beings to comprehend and undertake. In Buddha in the Human World, Venerable Yinshun (印順, 1906–2005) offered insights into the concept of “vehicle,” stating: “The Five Vehicles are the Vehicle of Men, the Vehicle of Gods, the Śrāvaka Vehicle, the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and the Bodhisattva Vehicle (or the Buddha Vehicle). A vehicle must have three essential aspects: (1) an aspiration, (2) a goal, and (3) a method (Yinshun 2024a, p. 32a11-12).” From the perspective of the “Vehicles of Men and Gods”, “aspiration” (fa xin發心) refers to generating either the mind of “enhancement” or the mind of “excellence”, with the hope of achieving fulfillment and happiness in both the present and future lives—physically, intellectually, and in one’s overall well-being. The goal is to pursue this enriched life, while the “method” involves engaging in righteous human conduct, such as practicing generosity and upholding precepts.

As for the Two Vehicles (Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha), their aspiration is the generation of the mind of “renunciation”, which seeks to end the cycle of birth and death within the Three Realms. Their goal is to attain Nirvāṇa and liberation from the suffering of samsāra. The “method” focuses on purifying the mind from afflictions, emphasizing introspection and self-discipline as a means of realization.

From the perspective of the “Bodhisattva Vehicle”, “aspiration” refers to the generation of Bodhicitta (菩提心) based on great compassion, arising from deep sympathy and empathy for the suffering of all sentient beings. The goal is to dedicate oneself to benefiting others, guiding them toward liberation, and ultimately attaining Buddhahood. The “method” is to cultivate both self-benefiting and altruistic practices, advancing one’s own spiritual progress while simultaneously assisting others (Yinshun 2024a, pp. 32a12–34a3).

Venerable Yinshun ultimately emphasizes: “Although the teachings of Buddhism are vast and boundless, they can be summarized within the framework of the Five Vehicles. Learning Buddhism does not go beyond these Five Vehicles, and among them, the Bodhisattva Vehicle is the most supreme. If one studies Buddhism while neglecting the aspirations and practices of these Five Vehicles, such a pursuit becomes superficial and insincere, unable to escape the suffering of the evil realms” (Yinshun 2024a, p. 34a3–5). In Mahāyāna scriptures, whether referring to the Three Vehicles ultimately converging into the One Buddha Vehicle, or the Five Vehicles merging into the One Buddha Vehicle, the foundation of these teachings lies in the belief that all sentient beings inherently possess Buddha-nature. This universal Buddha-nature serves as the intrinsic basis for everyone to attain Buddhahood. Regardless of which Vehicle one follows, it ultimately leads to the Buddha Vehicle. As stated in the Lotus Sūtra (Miao Fa Lian Hua Jing): “In all the Buddha lands of the ten directions, there is only one Vehicle—no second, nor a third—except when the Buddha speaks expediently” (Kumārajīva 1924–1934, p. 8a). Each of the Five Vehicles possesses Buddha-nature, and this Buddha-nature itself provides the theoretical foundation for the path to Buddhahood. This concept contributed to the development of various doctrinal classification systems (pànjiào) in Chinese Buddhism, such as the Huayan School’s classification of the Five Teachings: Small (xiǎo), Initial (shǐ), Final (zhōng), Sudden (dùn), and Perfect (yuán). Fazang (法藏, 643–712)’s Essay on the Five Teachings of Huayan (The Huayan wujiao zhang) incorporates the doctrine of establishing the One Vehicle. Similarly, Zhiyan (智儼, 602–668)’s Kongmu Zhang discusses the classification of One Vehicle and Three Vehicles within the Lu She Na Fo Pin (Vairocana Chapte) and Pu Xian Wen (Samantabhadra Section), reflecting the characteristics of the Five Vehicles and serving as early examples of the Huayan Five Teachings (Kamata 2011, p. 548). The Five Vehicle Teachings of Humanistic Buddhism are rooted in the belief that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature. Based on this understanding, practitioners cultivate the Bodhisattva Path, ultimately progressing toward Buddhahood. This not only emphasizes the spiritual potential of all beings but also provides a clear path toward ultimate liberation.

3. The Path of Practice in Taixu’s Buddhism for Human Life

In order to reform the various shortcomings arising from the past “Buddhism of Ghosts” and “Buddhism of the Dead”, Master Taixu proposed a path of Buddhist practice that is based on the improvement of real life. In his 1929 essay Ren sheng fo jiao kai ti (An Introduction to Buddhism for Human Life), he stressed that Buddhism should be closely integrated with everyday life, addressing the current realities of human existence and advocating for practice within daily life.

He believed that Buddhism should not focus solely on transcendence or the pursuit of bliss in the afterlife, but should also be concerned with the suffering and well-being of sentient beings in this world, aiming for both personal growth and social harmony. Against this backdrop, Master Taixu promoted the concept of “Buddhism for Human Life”, emphasizing the practical application of Buddhist teachings through meaningful actions. His approach prioritized improving people’s living conditions, enhancing physical and mental well-being, and fostering social progress and harmony.

This perspective not only challenged the traditional Buddhist emphasis on future lives and transcendence but also encouraged the development of Buddhist thought in a direction that embraces human concerns. It inspired practitioners to comprehend the essence of Buddhism through compassionate engagement in the world. Through this approach, Master Taixu shaped a model of Buddhist practice that meets the needs of contemporary society, ensuring that Buddhism becomes an integral part of daily life and serves as a guide for everyday practice. He pointed out:

“What is “Human Life”? From the perspective of the need for reform, the term “human life” (rensheng) is used to address the long-standing drawbacks in traditional Buddhist practices. Human life also be understood as “a living person” (shengren, 生人). Traditional Buddhism had long been divided into ‘Buddhism of the Dead’ and ‘Buddhism of Ghosts’. Many Buddhist practitioners believed that as long as one could achieve a peaceful death and secure a good afterlife, that was the essence of Buddhist practice… Some even claimed that Buddhism primarily concerns itself with departing from the human world; an immortal spirit—understood concretely as the soul, and more specifically, as spirits and ghosts… However, we believe that if one wishes to achieve a peaceful death, one must first live a meaningful life; if one wants to be a good ghost, one must first be a good person. Therefore, rather than emphasizing “death and spirits”, it is more meaningful to focus on “human life”… This is precisely why we advocated for Buddhism for Human Life as a response to the long-standing dominance of Buddhism for the Dead and the Ghosts.”

(Taixu 1980i, pp. 217–23, especially pp. 218–19)

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Buddhism gradually declined into a religion primarily focused on chanting scriptures and performing rituals, leading people to associate Buddhism mainly with death and funerary rites. This perception reduced Buddhism to the “Buddhism of the Dead” and the “Buddhism of Ghosts”, neglecting its essential principles of compassion and equality, as well as its deep significance in secular life. In response, Taixu emphasized that instead of prioritizing matters related to ghosts and spirits, greater attention should be given to human existence. He explained that “human life” (rensheng) can be understood as “a living person” (shengren), meaning that people should be enabled to survive, live with dignity, and attain happiness.

Master Taixu’s definitions of “human life”, “a living person”, and “Buddhism for Human Life” provided an essential foundation for promoting this new approach to Buddhist practice. How, then, should “Buddhism for Human Life” be put into practice? He proposed the guiding principle of “following the practice and fruition of the Human Vehicle to cultivate the Mahāyāna path (依人乘行果，趣修大乘行)”:

“At this time, one should cultivate the Mahāyāna path by first attaining the fruition of the Human Vehicle. This is a necessity dictated by the conditions of the age. In particular, Chinese Buddhism has long been criticized as being escapist and superstitious. The Vehicle of Gods appears to be linked to superstitious beliefs in spirits, while the Śrāvaka Vehicle seems to advocate withdrawal from the world. Therefore, we must make it clear that Buddhism offers essential teachings on how to be a good person. By first realizing the fruition of the Human Vehicle and then cultivating the Mahāyāna path, we can illuminate Mahāyāna principles alongside the wisdom of ethical human conduct. Only by helping people understand Buddhism’s relevance to human life can we foster faith in it. Those who grasp Mahāyāna philosophy and develop the Mahāyāna aspiration can then further progress along the Mahāyāna path, practicing the Six Perfections and the Four Means of Conversion1, ultimately attaining the supreme fruition of Buddhahood.”

(Taixu 1980h, pp. 624–30, especially p. 627)

In the face of attacks on Buddhism, particularly the misconception that it advocates escapism and superstition, part of the reason lies in certain practices within Buddhism itself. Some followers tend to incline toward spiritual superstition or Śrāvaka-style practices that focus on renouncing the secular world. To eliminate such misunderstandings, one should adhere to the guideline of “following the practice and fruition of the Human Vehicle to cultivate the Mahāyāna path.” This means that Buddhist practice should be founded on the principles of “being a good human” while also “expounding the teachings of the Mahāyāna.” This is a path of practice that ought to be followed.

Furthermore, for sentient beings in the human realm, Buddhism provides concrete and substantial teachings on how to conduct oneself as a person, bringing tangible benefits to daily life. By centering Buddhist practice on the human condition, faith in Buddhism can be strengthened. The spirit, which begins with the Vehicle of Men and then advances toward the Mahāyāna, embodies the core essence of “Buddhism for Human Life.” However, this method of practice is often overlooked.

“Buddhism for Human Life” stands on the foundation of the human realm, emphasizing the cultivation of the Six Perfections and the Four Means of Conversion to ultimately attain supreme Buddhahood. This represents a progressive path of practice and outlines the stages of cultivation in “Buddhism for Human Life”. Yet, this is merely a surface-level statement. For instance, upholding the Five Precepts and practicing the Ten Wholesome Deeds are fundamental to being a good person, but how exactly should one observe these precepts and cultivate virtue? Is there an ideal teaching that can guide practitioners of “Buddhism for Human Life” in their practice?

Similarly, based on the guidance of “cultivating the Mahāyāna path through the fruition of the Human Vehicle,” how should one practice the Six Perfections? How should one carry out the Four Means of Conversion? These questions require clearer and more specific teachings to serve as references for practitioners.

Master Taixu cited the Discourse on the Stages of Concentration Practice (Yujia shidi lun) to elaborate on the fundamental principles by which Bodhisattvas benefit other, stating: “The reason Bodhisattvas can benefit sentient beings lies fundamentally in these four methods. The Yogācāra Bodhisattva Precepts are based on the Bodhisattva practices of the ‘Six Perfections’ and the ‘Four Means of Conversion’ (Taixu 1980b, p. 654). He further explained:

“The Four Means of Conversion are as follows: 1. Charitable offerings (Dāna): To provide material resources or Dharma that sentient beings seek or long for. 2. Loving words (Priyavādita): To speak words that bring joy and comfort to sentient beings, drawing them in and bringing them happiness. 3. Beneficial conducts (Arthakṛtya): To engage in deeds that are beneficial and contribute to the well-being of sentient beings. 4. Working together (Samānârthatā): To share in the joys and sorrows of others, just like travelers on the same boat experiencing fortune and hardship together. By employing these four methods to guide and support sentient beings, they are called the Four Means of Conversion. Since these four methods universally benefit all beings, they are known as “means of benefiting sentient beings.”

(Taixu 1980l, pp. 275–76)

“Charitable offerings” refers to providing material resources or Dharma to sentient beings according to their needs and desires, thereby fulfilling their wishes. “Loving words” involves using gentle and warm words when communicating with sentient beings, soothing their souls and enhancing their happiness. “Beneficial conducts” means supporting and helping others through beneficial deeds, fulfilling their needs. “Working together” is about sharing in the joys and hardships of sentient beings, akin to fellow travelers on the same boat who experience both sorrows and happiness together.

By employing these four methods to benefit sentient beings, Bodhisattvas create a pure land, filling the world with kindness and harmony. Therefore, practitioners of Buddhism for Human Life should follow these principles and diligently put them into practice for the benefit and well-being of all beings. Regarding the practice of the Six Perfections, Master Taixu stated:

“The Discourse on the Stages of Concentration Practice (Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra) discusses the observation of Bodhisattva dispositions, determining whether an individual possesses the wholesome roots of a Bodhisattva based on their ability to practice the Bodhisattva path—namely, the cultivation of the Six Perfections. Some individuals are naturally endowed with great compassion. Upon hearing the teachings of the Mahāyāna, they are inspired to engage in the practice of the Six Perfections and thus become Bodhisattvas. Others may have weaker compassion but, upon encountering the Mahāyāna teachings, begin to study and cultivate the Bodhisattva path through the practice of the Six Perfections, eventually becoming Bodhisattvas as well. There are also those who initially lack compassion altogether; however, upon hearing the Mahāyāna Dharma and admiring the vows and practices of the Bodhisattvas, they may at first feel reluctant or find it difficult. Yet, over time, through continuous practice, they too can settle into their path and become Bodhisattvas.”

(Taixu 1980d, pp. 315–16)

Master Taixu emphasized that the observation of the Bodhisattva lineage in the Discourse on the Stages of Concentration Practice (Yujia shidi lun) focuses on whether an individual can practice the Bodhisattva path as a way to affirm their possession of the wholesome roots of a Bodhisattva. The essence of the Bodhisattva path lies in the cultivation of the Six Perfections. Regardless of the strength of one’s innate compassion, any sentient being who, after hearing the Mahāyāna teachings, is willing to study and practice the Six Perfections can be regarded as a Mahāyāna Bodhisattva. Those naturally endowed with profound compassion will quickly embrace and cultivate the Six Perfections upon hearing the Mahāyāna teachings. Those with weaker compassion can gradually internalize and cultivate the Six Perfections through learning and practice, eventually attaining the Bodhisattva path. Even those who originally lack compassion may initially struggle, but with perseverance and continuous practice, they too can become Bodhisattvas.

Thus, regardless of how compassion initially arises, as long as one possesses the aspiration of the Mahāyāna and is willing to practice the Bodhisattva path, one can be recognized as having the wholesome roots of a Bodhisattva. This teaching highlights that people from all backgrounds and circumstances can cultivate the Bodhisattva path. As long as they are determined, they can become Mahāyāna Bodhisattvas. Such guidance encourages all practitioners to explore and embody the spirit of the Bodhisattva in their daily lives, inspiring them to continuously progress on the path of altruism and cultivation.

4. Taixu’s Innovations on “The Perfection of Human Character Leads to Buddhahood (人圓佛即成)” and “The Present Bodhisattva Practice (今菩薩行)”

4.1. How to Interpret “The Perfection of Human Character Leads to Buddhahood”?

Master Taixu’s verse, “We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; the fulfillment lies in human character. Attain Buddhahood through the perfection of human character—this is true reality” (Taixu 1980g, p. 259), also appears in another form as “We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; perfection is accomplished within human character. The perfection of human character leads to Buddhahood—this is true reality.” (Taixu 1980f, p. 458) Although the wording differs slightly, the core idea remains unchanged. When citing this verse, Venerable Yinshun made slight adjustments to individual word choice, rendering it as “We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; fulfillment is realized in human character. Attain Buddhahood through the perfection of human character—this is true reality.” (Yinshun 1992a, p. 383; 1992b, p. 426; 2024a, p. 324a8) Despite these variations, the essential meaning remains consistent. Some may misunderstand the expression “The moment a person is fulfilled, Buddhahood is attained”, thinking that the attainment of Buddhahood merely refers to the realization of an ordinary human character.

In this context, the interpretation of “human character” is crucial. Master Taixu specifically pointed out:

“I used to say, ‘We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; the fulfillment lies in human character’, however, some people may misunderstand that attaining Buddhahood is merely the fulfillment of an ordinary human character, thereby reducing Buddhism to mundane human life. In fact, what I meant was: ‘From real-life existence, one must continuously improve, progress upwards, and develop toward the ultimate and supreme perfection of human character.’ True perfection of human character is only achieved upon attaining Buddhahood. Thus, while cultivating the virtues of a noble person or sage within the human realm can indeed be considered an aspect of human character, the character of a Buddha is not merely satisfied by this. One must build upon the foundation of ordinary human character, but it is neither about completely detaching from nor denying worldly existence, nor about becoming entangled in mundane life to the point of losing the Bodhisattva path of uplifting and progressing humanity. Such an approach would trap Buddhism within the confines of the secular world. To truly perfect one’s character, one must not only uphold the fundamental moral virtues of being human (the Vehicle of Men), but also arouse the great Bodhicitta, engage in the practice of the Six Perfections and the Four Means of Conversion for the benefit of all sentient beings, and continuously advance toward Buddhahood. This is the true fulfillment of human character. Ultimately, one must aspire toward the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva path, culminating in the highest state of cosmic human character—Buddhahood.”

(Taixu 1980s, pp. 758–59)

Master Taixu strongly emphasized that the root of misunderstanding lies in reducing Buddhahood to the mere fulfillment of ordinary human virtues. He clarified that his true intent was to highlight the necessity of continuous self-improvement, upward progress, and the pursuit of the supreme perfection of human character, culminating in Buddhahood.

He further pointed out that while there are ways in human society that cultivate virtuous qualities as those of sages and noble people, the character of a Buddha is not confined to these worldly ideals. True perfection of human character must go beyond the conventional virtues of human life. It should neither be entirely detached from worldly existence nor become so entangled in it that one loses sight of the Bodhisattva’s ultimate goal—to elevate oneself and others. Master Taixu clarified that the relationship between teachers and disciples in Buddhist practice should not be limited to ordinary social roles but should also emphasize going beyond the basic moral virtues of human conduct (the Vehicle of Men) to arouse the great Bodhicitta, practicing the Six Perfections and Four Means of Conversion to universally benefit sentient beings.

Ultimately, Master Taixu underscored that Buddhist practice is about continuous upward progression toward Buddhahood, which is the true perfection of human character. This perspective not only encourages practitioners to uphold moral values in daily life but also instills in them a deep sense of commitment to learning and practicing the Dharma. Through this process, one can progressively understand and embody Buddhist teachings, ultimately reaching the highest state of human perfection—Buddhahood. This concept imbues the pursuit of character perfection with profound significance, inspiring practitioners to cultivate both personal and spiritual growth, thereby elevating their minds and lives to greater heights.

This explanation clearly articulates the process of cultivating “human character” toward “Buddhahood”, emphasizing that true perfection is only achieved upon reaching the state of Buddhahood. Master Taixu maintained that one must first establish a strong moral foundation, become a noble person or a sage, then arouse the great Bodhicitta, practice the six perfections and Four Means of Conversion to benefit all sentient beings, and persistently advance toward the Bodhisattva path of the Mahāyāna, thereby attaining the highest form of human character in the universe—Buddhahood. This represents the ideal state of perfected character.

Venerable Yinshun provided further clarification on this concept. In his Preface to Buddhism for Human Life (Ren Jian Fo Jiao Xu Yan), he explained that when Master Taixu introduced the idea of “Buddhism for Human Life” in the 14th and 15th years of the Republic of China (1925–1926), it carried both a corrective (counteracting) and a constructive (affirmative) meaning. The corrective aspect sought to counteract the prevailing superstitious focus in Chinese Buddhism on death and spirits, using “Buddhism for Human Life” to counterbalance “ghostly Buddhism”. The constructive aspect aimed to adapt Buddhism to the needs and circumstances of the time, advocating that one must “follow the correct Dharma of the human vehicle, first cultivating a complete and virtuous human character while maintaining the karmic retribution of the human vehicle”, and then “progressively elevate oneself” before engaging in the greater path of Mahāyāna practice. Thus, Master Taixu’s verse, “We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; the fulfillment lies in human character. Attain Buddhahood through the perfection of human character—this is true reality” (Yinshun 2024a, pp. 20a07–21a1), succinctly encapsulates this profound ideology. This interpretation not only clarifies the connection between character development and the realization of Buddhahood but also underscores the importance of cultivating a well-rounded personality in modern society as a crucial step toward fulfilling Buddhist ideals. Through this process, practitioners elevate their virtues and conduct, ultimately reaching a higher spiritual state and achieving true self-transcendence.

Beyond proposing the central doctrine of “Attain Buddhahood through the perfection of human character”, Master Taixu also emphasized: “One should understand that Buddhism takes the Mahāyāna as its foundation, with the Hīnayāna as a subsidiary. The problem that Buddhism seeks to resolve is primarily life itself, with death as a secondary concern. The essence of Mahāyāna Buddhism can be summarized as nothing more than ‘great compassion and great wisdom in protecting sentient beings’.” (Taixu 1980m, p. 198) He stressed that Mahāyāna Buddhism serves as the foundation, while Hīnayāna Buddhism remains subordinate. The essential function of Buddhism is to resolve the challenges of life, focusing on improving living conditions rather than solely on matters of life and death. The core of Mahāyāna Buddhism lies in great compassion and great wisdom—guiding and benefiting sentient beings. This is the fundamental principle of Humanistic Buddhism. Consequently, Master Taixu proclaimed: “Buddhism for Human Life does not teach people to abandon humanity to become gods or ghosts, nor does it demand that all practitioners retreat to monasteries or secluded forests to live as monks. Rather, it is a Buddhism that seeks to reform society through Buddhist teachings, advancing human civilization and improving the world.” (Taixu 1980q, p. 431)

Buddhism for Human Life advocates the realization of Pure Land in the present world, rather than being solely concerned with the afterlife. It emphasizes wisdom in living, integrating the spirit of the Bodhisattva path into everyday life. This lifestyle embodies the harmonious union of great compassion and great wisdom, ensuring the welfare and protection of all beings. Master Taixu further defined the nature of Buddhism for Human Life, pointing out that it does not instruct people to abandon humanity and become gods or ghosts, nor does it encourage retreating to monasteries or seclusion in the mountains. Rather, it is about using Buddhist teachings to improve society, promote human progress, and thus improve the world. He also offered the following definition of the term “human world”:

“The term “human world” refers to the entire global human civilization, as recorded in history and connected through transportation. The dissemination of Buddhism within the human world is itself a part of human culture, and within Buddhism, the Mahāyāna holds an even greater significance.”

(Taixu 1980c, p. 68)

Master Taixu’s definition of the “human world” is very clear: it encompasses the entire global human race, as described in historical records and as connected through transportation. The dissemination of Buddhism within the “human world” is, in fact, part of human culture, and within this cultural framework, Mahāyāna Buddhism has even more profound meaning. Master Taixu’s statement clearly expresses that the “human world” is both the setting for the practice of Buddhism and the goal of Buddhist teachings, which is to seek the welfare of all human beings. The purpose of Buddhism is to improve and purify the human world, inspiring all beings to generate the Bodhicitta, study and practice the Bodhisattva path, and ultimately reach the ideal of Buddhahood. This idea highlights not only Buddhism’s social responsibility but also its role in guiding people to practice the Dharma in their daily lives, turning it into a force for social harmony and personal progress.

Thus, the practice of liberation from birth and death is realized in the process of benefiting others, with the foundation of “being human”. It helps people recognize Buddhism’s value in shaping character and enhancing humanity. This is especially important because understanding Mahāyāna teachings, giving rise to the great vehicle aspiration, and practicing the six perfections and the Four Means of Conversion will ultimately lead to the attainment of supreme Buddhahood.

On this foundation, Master Taixu introduced the concept of “present Bodhisattva practice” (今菩薩行), advocating that Bodhisattva practices should be grounded in Mahāyāna teachings while aligning with the needs of “present time, present place, and present people”. This notion emerged from his discussions with Liang Shuming (梁漱溟, 1893–1988). Despite their differing views, their debates exemplified how Master Taixu sought to advance Buddhism for Human Life, aiming to inspire concrete efforts in the practice of Buddhists.

4.2. The Significance of “Present Bodhisattva Practice”

The core of “Present Bodhisattva Practice” lies in integrating traditional Buddhist teachings with the realities of contemporary society, making the practice of the Bodhisattva path more relevant to modern life. Master Taixu’s philosophy encourages practitioners not only to make personal progress in their spiritual cultivation but also to actively engage in improving society and serving others. This approach truly embodies the Buddhist ideals of compassion and wisdom, fostering human progress and social harmony. Such a perspective not only responds to the needs of contemporary society but also offers new directions and possibilities for the development of Buddhism, allowing Buddhists to pursue spiritual fulfillment while also becoming a force for social good. Mr. Liang Shuming, after studying Buddhism, gradually turned to Confucianism, as he believed that Buddhism lacked a sufficient focus on the human realm. Thus, when Master Taixu invited him to give a lecture at the Sino-Tibetan Institute of Buddhist Studies, he wrote on the blackboard: “This time, this place, and these people.” The statement emphasized the present temporal and spatial context of practice, as well as the specific individuals involved, highlighting the practical significance of Buddhism in the present moment. Master Hsing Yun later also responded to this view, arguing that while Buddhism addresses the past, present, and future, its primary focus is on the universal salvation of sentient beings in this world. Although Buddhism speaks of this world, that world, and innumerable worlds, it remains fundamentally concerned with the well-being of the present world. Likewise, while Buddhism discusses the ten Dharma realms of existence, its main focus is on the benefit of humankind (Hsing 2008d, pp. 542–54, especially pp. 543–44). Clearly, Mr. Liang’s perspective has long been an issue that advocates of Buddhism for Human Life must address and interpret appropriately. Master Taixu later provided further clarification on Mr. Liang’s lecture:

“Chinese Buddhists should practically experience and cultivate their practice based on Mahāyāna Buddhist theory, engaging with the nation, the people, and humanity worldwide. This practical application of Mahāyāna teachings is what is known as the “Bodhisattva Practice”. However, this practice must also align with the actual needs of the present time, place, and people, and thus, it can be called the “Present Bodhisattva Practice.” This term serves to distinguish it from the conventional, idealistic, and often impractical notion of “Bodhisattva Practice.” Practitioners of Present Bodhisattva Practice must cultivate noble morals and character, possess profound and excellent knowledge of both Buddhist and scientific disciplines, and actively participate in various sectors of society. Monastics, for example, can contribute to the fields of culture, education, and charity, while lay Buddhists can engage in politics, the military, industry, finance, labor, and other domains—ensuring that the entire nation and society benefit from the presence of Buddhists. By integrating into every level of society, Buddhists remain deeply connected to the state, society, and its people, rather than being isolated from them.”

(Taixu 1980a, pp. 13–33, especially p. 31)

Master Taixu pointed out that Chinese Buddhists should, under the guidance of Mahāyāna Buddhist theory, engage in actual practice and experience directed toward the nation, the people, and humanity at large. He emphasized that the practical application of this Mahāyāna theory is what is known as “Bodhisattva Practice.” This practice of the Bodhisattva path must adapt to the practical needs of the present time, present place, and these people, and thus it is also referred to as the “Present Bodhisattva Practice.” He further criticized the previous tendency to speak in lofty, empty terms about “Bodhisattva Practice,” pointing out that the practitioners of “Present Bodhisattva Practice” should cultivate noble morals and character, possess solid knowledge of both Buddhist teachings and scientific principles, and actively participate in various social activities. Monastics can engage in cultural, educational, and charitable work, while lay practitioners should extend their involvement to politics, the military, industry, finance, labor, and other sectors of society, ensuring that the nation and its people benefit from the efforts of Buddhists. This vision of development expects Buddhists to no longer be separated from society but to integrate Buddhist values into every field of work, ensuring that the practice of Buddhism is connected with every aspect of the nation and society. This effort to penetrate every level of society aims to make the principles and practice of Buddhism an important force driving social progress and human welfare. Through this approach, Master Taixu promoted the practice of Buddhism for Human Life and emphasized the importance and influence of Buddhism in real life. It is worth emphasizing that carrying out “Bodhisattva Practice” should be under the guidance of the Mahāyāna theory to meet the practical needs of “present time, place, and people”. Master Taixu pointed out:

“I believe there are many reasons for the decline of Chinese Buddhism, but the greatest cause is the empty talk about Mahāyāna without a focus on practice, which leads to a complete disconnection between action and doctrine. Therefore, to revive Chinese Buddhism, we must eliminate the habit of believers indulging in empty discussions and instead make the theory permeate the practical, everyday lives of the people. Given the actual circumstances and needs of contemporary society, Chinese Buddhists must apply Mahāyāna Buddhist theory in a practical manner toward the nation, the people, and all of humanity. The practice of Mahāyāna teachings is precisely what we call ‘Bodhisattva Practice.’ And this Bodhisattva Practice must be able to adapt to the practical needs of present time, place and people, so it can also be called ‘Present Bodhisattva Practice’. This is to distinguish it from the empty, high-sounding, and impractical ‘Bodhisattva Practice’ of the past.”

(Taixu 1980e, p. 30)

There are many reasons for the decline of Chinese Buddhism, but the root cause lies in the empty talk of Mahāyāna without a focus on actual practice, leading to a complete disconnect between behavior and doctrine. Therefore, the key to revitalizing Chinese Buddhism is to change the habit of believers being immersed in empty discussions and to ensure that theory is truly put into practice by the people. He stressed that, in light of the actual conditions and needs of society, Buddhists should start from the theory of Mahāyāna Buddhism and engage in practical learning and cultivation for the benefit of the nation, the people, and humanity. This practical application of Mahāyāna theory is what is called “Bodhisattva Practice.” More importantly, this Bodhisattva Practice must meet the actual needs of the present time, and therefore, it is referred to as “Present Bodhisattva Practice.” Master Taixu critiqued the past tendency of speaking in high-flown terms about “Bodhisattva Practice,” pointing out the phenomenon of empty titles. He emphasized that Mahāyāna Buddhism must be integrated into daily life, so that life and Buddhist teachings can come together. As Chan Buddhism says, “Carrying water and chopping firewood are also the Way.” Even in the daily tasks of life, one can find the best opportunities for cultivation. However, for the average practitioner, understanding Buddhist teachings and applying them in practice can be challenging. Often, they may fall into the trap of blindly following others (such as a master or other monks) without developing a deep understanding, resulting in uncritical and ineffective practice. In this pursuit of “prioritizing practice,” they might end up engaging in blind and ineffective forms of cultivation. Therefore, Master Taixu’s teachings remind practitioners to not only emphasize practice but also to deeply understand the teachings to ensure the correctness and effectiveness of their practice. Only in this way can they truly incorporate Buddhist wisdom into their daily lives, forming a cultivation model that is both profound and practically meaningful.

4.3. How to Implement the “Present Bodhisattva Practice”?

In the practice of the “Present Bodhisattva Practice”, Master Taixu proposed an essential direction for implementation. He stated:

“We should follow the example of Avalokitêśvara-Bodhisattva through collective division of labor, making him a model for practicing the present Bodhisattva practice. Everyone knows that Avalokitêśvara is the Universal Gateway Bodhisattva who manifests in countless ways to respond to the needs of all sentient beings. He appears in thirty-two different forms, such as a general or government official, to teach and liberate those who need guidance in such roles. Likewise, he manifests as a monk or layperson, or even as a young boy or girl, to deliver teachings accordingly. This skillful means of benefiting sentient beings is what we must emulate in our practice of the present Bodhisattva practice. We take the collective body of practitioners of the present Bodhisattva practice as the foundation, with each individual or group serving as an emanation body that responds to the needs of people in present time and place. Simply put, each unit of the present Bodhisattva practitioners, while acting as distinct entities, comes together as a unified whole. Guided by the Bodhicitta of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva as the primary cause, rooted in great compassion, and practicing skillful means in all actions, they embody the fearless spirit of delivering sentient beings. Through this collective unity, they manifest the thirty-two forms of the present Bodhisattva practice, each fulfilling a specific role in service to society. In short, if we wish to revitalize Chinese Buddhism and establish a modern form of Chinese Buddhism, we must realize the present Bodhisattva practice through the revitalization of monastic institutions and dedicated service to humanity.”

(Taixu 1980e, pp. 31–32)

It emphasizes the importance of learning from Avalokitêśvara-Bodhisattva through collective division of labor, taking him as a model for practicing the present Bodhisattva practice. As the Universal Gateway Bodhisattva, Avalokitêśvara manifests with fearless compassion, transforming into thirty-two forms to meet the diverse needs of sentient beings. Whether appearing as a general, a government official, a monk, a lay practitioner, or even as a young boy or girl, he assumes various identities to teach the Dharma and provide guidance. This flexible and skillful way of benefiting sentient beings serves as a crucial model for the present Bodhisattva practice. Master Taixu pointed out that groups practicing the present Bodhisattva practice should function as collective entities, while each individual or subgroup adapts to the diverse needs of modern society, responding from the perspective of sentient beings to offer appropriate assistance and support. Specifically, each unit of practitioners should divide responsibilities based on their capabilities, resources, and societal needs, working together in collaboration. With the Bodhicitta as the motivation, great compassion as the foundation, and skillful means as the guiding method, they engage in various beneficial actions. Such collective efforts embody the fearless spirit of salvation, integrating it into the actions of every participant, thereby forming a community of mutual support and progress. Master Taixu further stressed that in order to revive Chinese Buddhism and establish a modern form of Chinese Buddhism, it is crucial to implement the present Bodhisattva practice through the reform and revitalization of monastic institutions and dedicated service to the people. This means that Buddhists must not only focus on their own spiritual cultivation but also actively engage with society, serving the community and integrating Buddhist wisdom and compassion into daily life. In short, the implementation of the “Present Bodhisattva Practice” requires collective strength and wisdom, demonstrating a flexible yet profound application of the Bodhisattva ideal in real-world actions. Through this model, practitioners can transform Buddhist teachings into tangible efforts that contribute to human well-being and societal progress, fostering harmony between individuals and society. Clearly, Master Taixu’s teachings emphasize practicing the Bodhisattva Path in daily life and encourage followers to take Avalokitêśvara-Bodhisattva as their role model, utilizing collective division of labor to manifest the Bodhisattva’s compassionate responses to the world. He advocated that engaging in the “Present Bodhisattva Practice” must be guided by Bodhicitta, rooted in great compassion, and carried out through skillful means to embody the fearless spirit of salvation. While these teachings provide a solid theoretical foundation, the real challenge lies in their concrete implementation in everyday actions. The core of manifesting the Bodhicitta lies in cultivating deep care and compassion for all sentient beings, while skillfully applying expedient means requires wisdom and adaptability. This demands that practitioners not only possess sufficient meditative cultivation but also the motivation and capability to put their knowledge into practice. Otherwise, if one remains at the level of theoretical understanding without practical application, their cultivation will ultimately fail to yield real benefits. With regard to practitioners of Buddhism for human life, the enhancement of both spiritual cultivation and wisdom—especially the realization of emptiness (空性)—is of paramount importance. Even if one has not yet attained a deep realization of emptiness, it is essential to develop right knowledge and right view, understanding the principles of dependent origination and cessation. Only in this way can one maintain the correct direction in following the “present Bodhisattva practice” and avoid falling into the narrow perspective of the Vehicles of Men and Gods. Master Taixu deeply understood this principle. His teachings did not remain at the initial stages of practice but instead guided practitioners toward a deeper exploration of how their inner spirituality and external conduct should be integrated. The right knowledge and right view that he emphasized provided a solid foundation for practitioners, preventing them from losing their way when faced with the complexities of the modern world. Therefore, for contemporary Buddhists, continuous learning and practice are essential—particularly in understanding the law of dependent origination and cultivating the Bodhisattva Path. It is not enough to grasp Buddhist doctrines theoretically; they must be embodied in daily life so that thought and action complement each other. In this way, practitioners can truly become Bodhisattvas who bring benefit to both society and others. Such a vision and practice will undoubtedly promote the healthy development of Buddhism for human life and enable Buddhism to exert a deeper influence in today’s world. Thus, Master Taixu stated:

“Buddhism should place special emphasis on human life among all sentient beings. This is what I have long advocated—such as the ideas of Buddhism for Human Life, Humanistic Buddhism, the construction of a Pure Land in the human realm, the direct path from the Vehicle of Men to the Great Vehicle, and the progressive advancement of human life toward ultimate Buddhahood. However, Buddhism should fundamentally be based on ‘the world of continuous karmic fruition for all sentient beings in the ten-direction material realm’, with the human realm within this world being a particularly superior second level. It is within this human realm that the Three Vehicles leading to liberation and the Mahāyāna path of universal salvation are necessary. If one were to take the passage from the Āgamas, ‘All Buddhas arise in the human world; they never attain Buddhahood in the heavens,’ and use it in isolation to separate Buddhism from the realm of other sentient beings, solely upholding human world as its foundation, this would fall into the narrow confines of human-centrism.”

(Taixu 1980p, p. 52)

Master Taixu emphasized that Buddhism should address the actual needs of all sentient beings, particularly by focusing on the meaning of “human life.” He advocated for “Buddhism for Human Life” and “Humanistic Buddhism,” hoping that these teachings would help build a Pure Land in this world. He regarded the vehicle of men as the gateway to the Mahāyāna, allowing individuals to gradually progress upward from human life and ultimately attain perfect Buddhahood. However, Master Taixu pointed out that the foundation of Buddhism should be established upon “the world where all sentient beings in the ten-direction material realm experience the continuity of karmic cause and effect”, as this constitutes the first level of understanding Buddhism. Within this vast framework, the human realm is regarded as a particularly significant second level. Under this perspective, there is a need for the three vehicles leading to liberation from karmic continuity, as well as the Great Vehicle, which aspires to universally deliver all sentient beings. He cited the Āgama Sūtras, stating that “All Buddhas arise in the human world; they do not attain Buddhahood in the heavens”, to emphasize that Buddhism should not be isolated from non-human existence nor severed from the realm of sentient beings. If one exclusively emphasizes Buddhism for the human world, there is a risk of falling into an overly narrow perspective of anthropocentrism. Such a limited perspective may even cause one to forget the essence of Buddhism, which is to universally liberate all sentient beings rather than being confined solely to humanity. Thus, Master Taixu’s teachings are both comprehensive and profound, reminding Buddhists that in their practice and cultivation of the Dharma, they must maintain concern for all sentient beings as a whole. This prevents them from falling into a narrow interpretation of the “human world” and ensures that they respect the value of human existence while remaining aligned with the universal compassion for all life in the cosmos. This passage clearly expresses Master Taixu’s critique of the views presented in Master Yinshun’s Buddhism in India (Yin Du Zhi Fo Jiao), particularly regarding the statement, “All Buddhas arise in the human world; they do not attain Buddhahood in the heavens.” Master Taixu believed that if such a claim merely emphasized the human realm while neglecting the existence of other sentient beings, it would detach Buddhism from its original compassion and universality, ultimately leading to a narrow, human-centered perspective. He further remarked, “Those who seek only happiness in the present human world may argue that Buddhism is not as practical as Confucianism or Daoism—such as the views of Liang Shuming, Xiong Zizhen (熊子真, 1885–1968), also known as Xiong Shili (熊十力)), Ma Yifu (馬一浮, 1883–1967), and Feng Youlan (馮友蘭, 1895–1990). Those who seek only future bliss in the heavens may claim that Buddhism is not as straightforward as Christianity or Islam. As a result, Buddhism would be abandoned in the human world.” (Taixu 1980p, p. 52) If one solely pursues happiness in the present human existence, some may perceive Buddhism as less relevant than Confucianism or Daoist philosophy. Conversely, if one focuses entirely on attaining future heavenly bliss, others may find Buddhism less direct and accessible compared to the doctrines of Christianity or Islam. Such trends, according to Master Taixu, would lead to the marginalization of Buddhism, particularly in addressing the challenges of the real world. He emphasized that the teachings of the Āgama Sūtras do not merely stress human existence but rather reflect the broad scope of the Buddha’s teachings. This demonstrates that Buddhist thought is not confined to the human realm (He 2006, pp. 15–24), but extends to the liberation and well-being of all sentient beings. Therefore, Master Taixu sought to remind people that the goal of Buddhism is universal—it must respect the existence and needs of all sentient beings. On this foundation, one must begin from the “human world” and engage in deeper cultivation and practice. Such an understanding not only makes Buddhism more inclusive but also encourages practitioners to embody the true Bodhisattva path within contemporary society, extending care and benefit to all living beings. In doing so, Buddhism helps elevate the moral and spiritual standards of human society as a whole. Master Taixu’s thought focuses on the progressive development of “human life” (manifestation, advancement, thriving, and full realization) as a path toward the attainment of perfect Buddhahood. He elaborated on the meaning of the “human world” through three interconnected levels:

1. The first level: “All sentient beings in the ten-direction material realm”—This level refers to the existence of all beings throughout the universe, emphasizing the continuity of karma and the significance of every sentient being. It serves as a reminder that Buddhism is not solely concerned with humanity but encompasses all forms of life.

2. The second level: “The exceptional human world”—At this level, Master Taixu regarded the human world as a particularly important place for spiritual cultivation. He believed that human beings possess the characteristics and capacity for spiritual practice. Although achieving realization in this realm is not easy, it is precisely due to the unique conditions and challenges of human existence that the effects of spiritual cultivation are most profound.

3. The third level: “Liberation from karmic continuity in the human world”—This level addresses the path of liberation that emerges through spiritual cultivation in the human realm. It includes the teachings of the Three Vehicles and the aspiration to liberate all sentient beings universally. In other words, only through spiritual practice in the human world can one progress toward higher states of liberation.

Through this structural analysis, Master Taixu not only emphasized the importance of “human-centered” Buddhism but also expanded its scope beyond Venerable Yinshun’s interpretation. The phrase from the Āgama Sūtras that Yinshun cited—“All Buddhas arise in the human world and never attain Buddhahood in the heavens”—is an isolated textual reference. While this statement does highlight the connection between Buddhism and the human world, relying solely on this evidence may weaken the broader Buddhist teachings on the Vehicle of Men and make it difficult to fully grasp Buddhist doctrine. Against this backdrop, Master Taixu transformed the traditional Buddhist concept of “Buddha-centered” thought, shifting the focus toward a more “human-centered” approach. This shift made “concern for real human life” a central feature of Buddhism for Human Life (Lai 2006, pp. 1–18, especially p. 6). Not only did it encourage Buddhists to pay closer attention to their present lives, but it also aligned Buddhism for Human Life with the actual needs of society and the well-being of all sentient beings, thereby manifesting the fundamental Buddhist teachings in the real world.

However, the question that remains is how Master Taixu conceptualized and constructed the transition from “human-centered” to “Buddha-centered” (or “Bodhisattva-centered”) Buddhism? Professor Li Mingyou raised this point over two decades ago, stating:

“In order to establish a system of Buddhism for Human Life where ordinary people attain Buddhahood, it is necessary to clarify how one advances directly from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle. Within the Five Vehicles, the Vehicle of Men is traditionally separated from the Buddha Vehicle by three intermediary stages: the Vehicle of Gods, the śrāvaka vehicle, and the pratyekabuddha vehicle. Can a human being bypass these three intermediate stages and attain Buddhahood directly? If this issue remains unresolved, Master Taixu’s system of Buddhism for Human Life cannot be fully established.” As Taixu himself once stated, “If this doubt is not dispelled, the theoretical soundness of my view on human life cannot be established”.

(Li 2000, p. 69)

This indicates that Master Taixu needed to make critical choices and reinterpret the Five Vehicles in order to establish a system of Buddhism for Human Life that leads directly to Buddhahood based on principles of true realism. The challenge of bridging the transition from a human-centered to a Buddha-centered (or Bodhisattva-centered) approach in Master Taixu’s philosophy is indeed a crucial issue. Professor Li Mingyou2 pointed to the core of this challenge, highlighting that within the Five Vehicles, the human vehicle is traditionally separated from the Buddha Vehicle by three intermediary stages: the Vehicle of Gods, the śrāvaka vehicle, and the pratyekabuddha vehicle. This suggests that individuals must typically progress through these three stages before reaching the Buddha Vehicle. Thus, identifying a direct path from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle became a fundamental issue that Master Taixu’s system of Buddhism for Human Life needed to resolve. Professor Li’s reference to Taixu’s statement, “If this doubt is not dispelled, the theoretical soundness of my view on human life cannot be established”, reflects Master Taixu’s recognition that, in order to establish a Buddhist theory based on “attaining Buddhahood upon perfecting human character”, he needed to reassess the meaning of the Five Vehicles and offer new interpretations. The key challenge lies in discovering a hidden passage that connects the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle, forming the key to the system of “attaining Buddhahood as a human”. In addressing this issue, several possible approaches Master Taixu may have adopted to construct and make transition:

• Redefining the Concept of the Vehicles—Instead of viewing the Five Vehicles as fixed stages, Master Taixu could have reconceptualized them as a dynamic and fluid process. This would allow practitioners to progress through different stages without being strictly confined to them, making it possible to transition directly to the Buddha vehicle.
• Emphasizing Experiential Practice—By encouraging practitioners to engage in real-world applications of Buddhist teachings, such as social service and charitable activities, they could directly experience the Bodhisattva practice. This hands-on approach would enable a more immediate realization of Buddhist principles, gradually merging the human and Buddha vehicles.
• Cultivating Bodhicitta—Emphasizing the cultivation of Bodhicitta as the core of spiritual practice, this approach encourages practitioners to focus on altruism and strive for the enhancement of wisdom. As a result, the practitioner’s mindset naturally shifts from a human-centered perspective to one that is Buddha-centered, facilitating a deeper engagement with the path toward enlightenment.
• Highlighting the Role of Causes and Conditions—Understanding the causal relationship between humans and Buddhas can help practitioners recognize that every thought and action has the potential to initiate spiritual transformation. This awareness fosters the continuous unfolding of Buddha-nature, ultimately leading to enlightenment.
• Developing Educational and Research Systems—Establishing an educational system dedicated to studying and teaching the transition from human-centered to Buddha-centered practice would provide practitioners with deeper insights into this process, further supporting their spiritual progression.

Such a strategy for bridging and constructing the connection will not only contribute to the establishment of Master Taixu’s system of Buddhism for Human Life but also promote a deeper understanding of humanism and the Bodhisattva path in contemporary Buddhism, ultimately forming a comprehensive Buddhist system that balances theoretical depth with practical efficacy. Through these efforts, the Buddhism for Human Life advocated by Master Taixu is expected to take deeper root in contemporary society, aligning with its current needs and values.

Moreover, Professor Chen Yongge3 raises a crucial question: Can one transcend the Vehicles of Men and Gods, the Śrāvaka Vehicle, and the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle to directly attain the Buddha Vehicle? Furthermore, how should a teaching and practice system for Buddhism for Human Life be established to address this question? His perspective reveals the fundamental distinction between the Vehicle of Men and the Buddha Vehicle—namely, that the former belongs to mundane teachings and is connected to human society, whereas the latter pertains to supramundane teachings (出世法), aiming to guide sentient beings beyond worldly suffering. He states:

“Ascending from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle constitutes a distinct and proper path within the Five Vehicles, capable of guiding humanity toward the right course. The dividing line between the Vehicle of Men and the Buddha Vehicle lies in the fact that the former is part of mundane teachings, while the latter belongs to supramundane teachings. As such, the Vehicle of Men, rooted in human ethical and moral principles, is a product of social life and cannot serve as the ultimate goal of human pursuit. This means that human ethical life cannot replace transcendent religious life; rather, it must be directed toward transcendence (or the otherworldly nature) of the Buddha Vehicle as its ultimate aim.”

(Chen 2003, p. 146)

The Vehicle of Men, as a part of worldly Dharma, emphasizes morality and human relationships, serving as the guiding principles that practitioners should follow in their daily lives. However, these ethical and moral laws cannot be the ultimate goal of spiritual practice, as they remain confined within the framework of the secular world. Professor Chen points out that while ethical life is important, it must ultimately lead toward a transcendent religious life—namely, the Buddha Vehicle. This implies that while practitioners pursue both personal and social morality, they should also be aware of the direction of their spiritual attainment and liberation, continuously striving for higher realization. To achieve the goal of directly advancing from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle, fundamental changes in education may be necessary, particularly within the study and practice system of Buddhism for Human Life. This would involve emphasizing virtuous actions in daily life as a foundation and cultivating practices rooted in the Bodhicitta. Through this approach, practitioners may gradually attain a deeper level of realization, ultimately embodying the qualities of a Bodhisattva in their everyday lives.

Professor Chen Yongge’s assertion that “ethical life cannot replace transcendent religious life” aligns with the views of Master Taixu. Both recognize that remaining solely engaged in worldly actions may lead to being trapped within the constraints of the secular world, lacking the motivation to progress toward higher spiritual realms. However, Master Taixu provides a clear emphasis on transcendence or otherworldliness as an indispensable element for practitioners of Buddhism for Human Life. He once stated:

“From the stage of the ‘human Bodhisattva’ to the ‘Bodhisattva beyond the human level’ and further to the ‘Buddha’s Bodhisattva,’ all these are stages of the Bodhisattva stages. Thus, one need not undergo the three intermediate stages of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, the Śrāvaka Vehicle, and the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, as these have already been subsumed within the stage of the ‘Bodhisattva beyond the human level.’ Therefore, these three stages are not necessary steps on the path from the human state to buddhahood; rather, they are deviations that arise when one fails to follow the direct path to perfect awakening.”

(Taixu 1980k, pp. 39–40)

Master Taixu’s teaching on the progression from the “human Bodhisattva” stage to the “Bodhisattva beyond the human level” stage, and then to the “Buddha’s Bodhisattva” stage, underscores the directness of the Bodhisattva path and the significance of transformation in this process. He asserts that each phase in this progression should be regarded as a stage of the Bodhisattva path, eliminating the need to undergo the three intermediate stages of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, the Śrāvaka Vehicle, and the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle. By stating that “these three stages have already been subsumed within the ‘Bodhisattva beyond the human level’ stage”, Master Taixu suggests that the traditional Five Vehicle system is not absolutely necessary, emphasizing that the path to the Buddha Vehicle can be direct, achievable through the cultivation of the “Bodhisattva beyond the human level”. This perspective argues that the spirit of transcendence can be naturally attained through the Bodhisattva path without necessarily passing through multiple intermediate stages.

Venerable Yinshun offers a profound interpretation of Master Taixu’s viewpoint:

“From the perspective of teaching, the original intent of Śākyamuni Buddha was to lead humans directly toward the Buddha path. ‘The three stages of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, the Śrāvaka Vehicle, and the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle… are results that diverge from the path to perfect enlightenment.’ (from The Science of the View on Life) In reality, the Vehicles of Gods, as well as the Śrāvaka Vehicle (Pratyekabuddha Vehicle), are still intended to guide beings toward the Buddha path. According to the stages of practice and realization in the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles and the fruition of the Vehicles of Gods, one eventually enters the Buddha path. This is in line with Master Taixu’s assessment: during the first millennium, ‘through the practice and fruition of the Śrāvaka Vehicle, one gives rise to the great vehicle aspiration’; during the second millennium, ‘through the practice and fruition of the Vehicles of Gods, one aspires to attain the Bodhisattva fruition.’ The urgency for liberation characterized by the fruition of the Śrāvaka Vehicle was the trend of the first millennium.”

(Yinshun 2024b, pp. 325a5–10)

Master Yinshun emphasizes that Master Taixu’s perspective does not deny the existence of the Three Vehicles but instead proposes a more flexible and pragmatic path of practice, one that aligns with real-world needs and suggests the possibility of directly transitioning from the Vehicle of Humans to the Buddha Vehicle. This perspective encourages practitioners to seek greater freedom in their practice rather than being confined by traditional doctrinal classifications. In Master Taixu’s view, Śākyamuni Buddha’s fundamental intent was to guide sentient beings directly from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha path. He stated that the stages of the Vehicles of Gods, the Śrāvaka Vehicle, and the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle were results that arose from those who did not follow the path to omnipresent enlightenment. This implies that while these three vehicles exist, they are not indispensable steps toward the Buddha path. Master Taixu stresses that whether it be the Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, or the Vehicles of Gods, all are ultimately meant to lead practitioners toward the Buddha path. In his understanding, if practitioners can base their progress on the attainments of the Śrāvaka Vehicle and the Vehicles of Gods, they can eventually enter the Buddha path. This principle forms the core of the practice system he constructed.

He interprets this process as follows: during the first millennium, practitioners “generate the Great Vehicle aspiration through the fruition of the Śrāvaka Vehicle.” At this stage, followers of the Śrāvaka path seek swift liberation, focusing on the urgent need for personal emancipation. From this starting point, they gradually shift toward the ideals of the Great Vehicle, arousing the mind of intention to achieve enlightenment. In the second millennium, practitioners “attain the fruition of the Great Vehicle through the practice and fruition of the Vehicle of Gods.” As they progress into this second stage, practitioners—building upon the foundations of the Vehicle of Gods—begin to emphasize the rewards of the Great Vehicle, recognizing that their practice can bring benefit to a greater number of sentient beings. This realization further guides them toward a higher pursuit of enlightenment. This classification not only illustrates the process of spiritual development but also reflects an evolving religious philosophy. Master Taixu’s perspective encourages believers to recognize that their ultimate goal is the Buddha Vehicle, rather than merely adhering to human ethics or personal well-being. This framework is designed to accommodate the varying needs of practitioners while progressively leading them toward the ultimate attainment of Buddhahood. Through this approach, Master Taixu not only made Buddhist teachings more applicable to contemporary society but also helped practitioners find deeper meaning and value in their spiritual journey.

In fact, Master Taixu conducted an in-depth analysis of the different periods of Buddhism and their respective methods of practice, particularly focusing on the transition from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle. He categorized these three periods as follows:

• The period of True Dharma: Attaining the Fruition of the Great Vehicle through the Practice and Fruition of the Śrāvaka Vehicle: During the early period of Buddhism, from the time of Śākyamuni Buddha until the first millennium of the correct Dharma, practitioners primarily relied on the practice and realization of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicle to initiate the Great Vehicle aspiration. At this stage, those who had attained the fruition of the Śrāvaka would naturally step onto the path of the Bodhisattva if they generated the aspiration for the Great Vehicle. Therefore, achieving Buddhahood in this period was not particularly difficult.
• The period of semblance Dharma: Attaining the Fruition of the Great Vehicle through the Practice and Fruition of the Vehicle of Gods: As Buddhism entered the second millennium, its teachings gradually spread to Tibet. During this time, practitioners mainly relied on esoteric practices, while Zen and Pure Land teachings predominated in China. During this period, sentient beings still possessed relatively strong faculties of understanding, yet fully ordained monks adhering to the Vinaya precepts became increasingly rare, making it difficult to attain the fruition of the Śrāvaka Vehicle. Consequently, practitioners in this era were more inclined toward seeking the rewards of the Vehicle of Gods, either by first attaining an illusory celestial body or by being reborn in the Pure Lands of the heavens. In accordance with the esoteric and pure practices, they relied on the practice and fruition of the Vehicle of Gods to swiftly achieve Buddhahood.
• The period of degenerate Dharma: Advancing in the Great Vehicle through the Practice and Fruition of the Human Vehicle: In the third millennium, during the degenerate Dharma era, it was no longer feasible to rely on the fruition of early Śrāvaka Vehicle or the Vehicle of Gods of the second period. At the beginning of this era, some practitioners could still manage to cultivate the fruition of the Vehicle of Gods in accordance with the esoteric and pure practices. However, observing the overall trend, even those methods were becoming increasingly unsuitable for the times. Relying on the fruition of the Śrāvaka Vehicle was criticized as a passive escape from the world, while reliance on the fruition of the Vehicles of Gods was dismissed as superstition. Instead of being expedient means, these approaches had turned into obstacles. Therefore, the practice followed in the contemporary era is neither based on the fruition from the early Śrāvaka Vehicle nor the Vehicle of Gods of the second period. Instead, the proper path is to cultivate the fruition of the Human Vehicle and to implement the principles of what Master Taixu termed “Buddhism for Human Life.” (Taixu 1980n, pp. 526–28)

Master Taixu believed that among the five vehicles, the transcendental paths of the Vehicles of Gods, Śrāvakas, and Pratyekabuddhas, as well as the worldly path of the Vehicle of Men, were all skillful means established as expedient teachings. Only the practices and attainments of Bodhisattvas and Buddhas represent the ultimate goal. If one clings solely to the two transcendental vehicles, there is a risk of mistaking expedient means for the ultimate realization while overlooking the importance of the Vehicle of Men. By starting from the human vehicle, followers can more directly advance toward the Bodhisattva Vehicle, which integrates both transcendence and worldly engagement, making it more suitable for the needs of contemporary society and the present era. Master Taixu’s perspective serves as a reminder that, in this age of the degenerate Dharma, one should select an appropriate method of practice based on the circumstances of “this time, this place, and these people.” Such an approach should emphasize human-centered practice, thereby enhancing the effectiveness and significance of Buddhism for Human Life. From the perspective of Buddhist teachings, Master Taixu provided a flexible and time-responsive framework for practice, helping followers find guidance in real life and gradually attain a higher spiritual state—the ideal of “attaining Buddhahood as a human”. This principle aligns with the concept of “expedient practice based on circumstances” (行之當機), meaning that the most suitable method for our current time is to begin with the human realm by cultivating the Five Precepts and the Ten Wholesome Deeds, then arousing the mind of intention to achieve enlightenment, advancing on the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva path, and ultimately attaining Buddhahood.

5. The Essential Teachings of Master Hsing Yun’s “Five-Vehicle Buddhism”

5.1. The Vehicles of Men and Gods and the Bodhisattva Vehicle

Ordinary people often confine spiritual practice to formal activities such as meditation, chanting the Buddha’s name, reciting sutras, not eating after noon, or engaging in solitary retreats. However, Venerable Hsing Yun pointed out that actions such as making vows, propagating the Dharma, teaching, writing, pioneering endeavors, benefiting others, rejoicing in others’ merits, and adapting to circumstances are also forms of practice (Hsing 2006a, pp. 172–229, especially p. 226). This interpretation aligns with the needs of modern society, enabling individuals to cultivate spiritual practice in all professions and fields. In this way, spiritual cultivation takes place through everyday work and practical actions, as practice and work are fundamentally inseparable. For instance, Master Hsing Yun stated:

“Practice! Practice! What exactly is practice? Specifically, performing monastic duties is practice; diligently studying Buddhism is practice; guiding sentient beings is practice; propagating the sacred teachings is practice; cultivating kindness, pity, joy, and equanimity is practice; Chan or Pure Land practices, and upholding precepts are practice…Even cultivating sincerity, righteousness, and benefiting one’s country and people are forms of practice. I hope that all members of Fo Guang Shan truly understand the essence of practice, develop the aspiration to be contributors to society rather than merely those who take from it; to be producers in the world rather than takers of it.”

(Hsing 2006d, pp. 14–191, especially p. 91)

Master Hsing Yun further emphasized the multifaceted nature of practice. More specifically, he regarded monastic duties, the rigorous study of Buddhism, guiding sentient beings toward the Dharma, propagating the Buddhist teachings, cultivating kindness, pity, joy, and equanimity, engaging in Chan or Pure Land cultivation, upholding precepts, and even upholding sincerity and righteousness for the benefit of one’s country and people as integral aspects of practice. He encouraged members of Fo Guang Shan to deeply comprehend the true meaning of practice, aspiring to be contributors to society rather than mere beneficiaries, and to become producers rather than mere takers in the world. Such an expanded perspective on practice not only broadens its definition but also inspires individuals to embody the spirit of cultivation in their daily lives, thereby fostering social harmony and progress. This comprehensive understanding of spiritual practice empowers each person to exert a positive influence within their respective roles and contribute meaningfully to societal development. Spiritual cultivation is not confined to traditional religious practices; rather, it encompasses every act of serving others, seeking the truth, and promoting ethical values in daily life.

Spiritual practice can be carried out at any time, in any place, and through any action—this is the path of both self-cultivation and benefiting others. Anyone who embraces this principle can train their mind through life’s circumstances in various fields and professions, thereby fully realizing the purpose of practice. This reflects the implementation of the Bodhisattva Path in the secular world, navigating between worldly engagement and transcendence.

However, whether followers can fully comprehend and practice this teaching remains a question worth exploring. Could an excessive emphasis on the Vehicles of Men and Gods lead to an overemphasis on worldly engagement, at the expense of the transcendent ideals of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles? Such an imbalance may prevent practitioners from fully realizing the true essence of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path. Therefore, followers must engage in continuous self-reflection and adjustment, striking a balance between worldly and transcendental practices. Only then can they effectively embody the Bodhisattva Path and contribute to social harmony and progress. According to Master Hsing Yun:

“The Vehicles of Men and Gods are characterized by attachment to the world; The Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles focus on transcending it; The Bodhisattva Vehicle, however, engages with the world without attachment and transcends the world without seeking only personal liberation. The Five-Vehicle Buddhist framework takes the Vehicles of Men and Gods as its foundation, progressively leading practitioners toward the Great Vehicle and ultimately the Buddha Vehicle. Therefore, the Vehicles of Men and Gods serve as the initial stages of the Buddha Vehicle, and the true intent of the Buddha’s birth in the world is to guide beings from the Human Vehicle directly toward the Buddha Vehicle. Those who practice the Five Vehicles in a gradual and structured manner will undoubtedly attain the same reality-body of thusness as the Buddha”.

(Hsing 1999b, pp. 79–86, especially p. 80)

The Vehicles of Men and Gods reflect an attachment to worldly existence, while the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles emphasize transcendence from it. The Bodhisattva Vehicle, however, embodies a unique balance—engaging with the world without attachment and transcending it without isolating oneself in solitary liberation. This ensures that the Bodhisattva Path remains deeply involved in worldly affairs while avoiding the pitfalls of worldly entanglement. The Five-Vehicle Buddhist framework establishes the Vehicles of Men and Gods as the foundation, guiding practitioners step by step into the Great Vehicle and ultimately the Buddha Vehicle. Thus, the Vehicles of Men and Gods can be regarded as the preliminary stages of the Buddha Path, while the true purpose of the Buddha’s manifestation in the world is to lead beings directly from the Human Vehicle to the Buddha Vehicle. By following the structured path of the Five Vehicles, practitioners can gradually attain the same reality-body of thusness as the Buddha, thereby realizing supreme wisdom and compassion. This approach to spiritual cultivation not only provides a profound theoretical foundation but also serves as a practical guide. It helps practitioners find appropriate methods of cultivation at different stages, ultimately achieving a state of mutual benefit for both self and others, thus contributing to the well-being of society as a whole.

Furthermore, the Vehicles of Men and Gods emphasize material well-being and represent a stage of attachment to the world, whereas the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles focus on spiritual realization and belong to the practice of transcendence. In the process of cultivation, both vehicles have their strengths and should not be neglected. This progression forms three transitional stages: “attachment to the world”, “transcendence from the world”, and “transcending the world while engaging with it”. From the perspective of the Five-Vehicle Buddhist Path, the five levels of Buddhist practice each follow a distinct process, adapting to the capacities of sentient beings. These levels must be aligned with the times and environment, requiring expedient means to guide practitioners rather than enforcing uniformity. Even sages who have realized the ultimate truth do not impose their insights upon others in a coercive manner.

Master Hsing Yun emphasized that the realization of transcendence must occur within the human world, embodying Buddhist practice in everyday life. His reasoning is rooted in the principle of “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset (以出世的思想，做入世的事業)”. He stated:

“Buddhism integrates the spirit of worldly engagement—the Vehicles of Men and Gods—with the transcendent ideals of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles, ultimately turning to the Bodhisattva Vehicle, which cultivates the Six Perfections and myriad virtuous practices, as its guiding principle. This is the essence of ‘undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset.’”

(Hsing 2008f, pp. 15–109, especially p. 18)

“The ‘Bodhisattva Path’ in Humanistic Buddhism…, embodies both the spirit of worldly engagement found in the Vehicles of Men and Gods and the transcendent ideals of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles. By applying otherworldly mindset to worldly affairs, it harmonizes the worldly engagement and transcendence, forming the core of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path.”

(Hsing 2008l, pp. 477–95, especially p. 487)

“Undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset” means that Buddhism combines the spirit of worldly engagement (the Vehicles of Men and Gods) with the transcendent ideals (the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles), turning to the “Bodhisattva Vehicle”, which practices the Six Perfections and myriad virtuous actions, as its guiding principle. Therefore, the “Bodhisattva Path” in Humanistic Buddhism not only embodies the spirit of worldly engagement but also integrates the transcendent ideals. By applying an otherworldly mindset to worldly affairs, it harmonizes the unity of engagement and transcendence, forming the core of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path.

The realization and embodiment of the “Bodhisattva Path” must occur within the dynamic interplay between worldly engagement and transcendence—transcending the world while engaging with it, and engaging with the world while transcending it. The unity of these two aspects is what constitutes the completion of the Buddha Path. Venerable Hsing Yun remarked: The Five Vehicles of Buddhism takes the Vehicles of Men and Gods as its foundation. One must first learn to be a good “human being”, and then cultivate the “Bodhicitta” and practice the “Bodhisattva Path”. Only by doing so can one ultimately complete the Buddha Path (Hsing 2008l, pp. 477–95, especially p. 489). This is a progressive process, advancing sequentially from the Human Path to the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Paths, then to the Bodhisattva Path, and ultimately attaining the Buddha Path. Therefore, entering the Buddha Path requires step-by-step practice and cannot be bypassed. Master Hsing Yun clearly pointed out: “If one wishes to attain Buddhahood, it can indeed be realized through the Mahāyāna path of Humanistic Buddhism. However, one must still go through the Buddhist teachings of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, as well as the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles, to complete one’s cultivation” (Hsing 2008k, pp. 7–54, especially p. 9). This guidance emphasizes the systematic and progressive nature of cultivation. Practitioners should follow this sequence to fully comprehend and actualize the core teachings of Buddhism, ultimately reaching the state of realization. This process not only reflects personal growth but also embodies the Bodhisattva Path by helping others and serving society, integrating the wisdom of both worldly engagement and transcendence.

Master Hsing Yun once illustrated the Path to Buddhahood with a vivid and engaging analogy:

“Humanistic Buddhism advocates that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character”. This is why the Buddha established the Five Vehicles of Buddhism, signifying that the foundation of transcendent Dharma is built upon the wholesome practices of the Vehicles of Men and Gods. In other words, the Five Vehicles of Buddhism takes the Vehicles of Men and Gods as its basis. If one can first cultivate oneself as a good human being, then develop the Bodhi mind and practice the Bodhisattva Path, one will ultimately attain the Buddha Path. This is similar to how someone earning a doctoral degree must first go through elementary school. Likewise, if we are traveling to Hunan today—assuming that Hunan represents the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, akin to a Pure Land—and we depart from Shanghai, passing through Nanjing and Jiangxi before arriving in Hunan, we might choose not to stop at Nanjing or Jiangxi but continue directly to Hunan. However, we cannot avoid passing through Nanjing and Jiangxi altogether. Similarly, while one can directly engage in Mahāyāna Buddhist practices to attain Buddhahood, one must still undergo the process of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, as well as the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles.”

(Hsing 2008l, pp. 477–95, especially p. 489)

Although the order of practice allows for progressing directly from the Human Vehicle to the Buddha Vehicle, when “an individual” practices the Buddha Path, they must still go through the Vehicles of Men and Gods, the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles, and the Bodhisattva Vehicle step by step. As previously illustrated by Master Hsing Yun, this process can be likened to a progressive journey through key stages of cultivation, he stated that the Vehicles of Men and Gods are the entry stages of the Buddha Path, and that the true purpose of the Buddha’s manifestation in the world was to guide sentient beings to advance directly from the Vehicle of Men to the Buddha Vehicle. This is the fundamental principle upheld by Humanistic Buddhism. “Bringing together the Five-Vehicle Buddhist teachings forms the essence of Humanistic Buddhism” (Hsing 2008l, pp. 477–95, especially p. 489). The guiding principle of Humanistic Buddhism involves harmonizing the Five Vehicles of Buddhism and fulfilling the “Path to Buddhahood”, encouraging practitioners to integrate Buddhist teachings into their daily lives, thereby achieving both self-cultivation and the benefit of others.

Furthermore, an important distinction must be made: “The teachings of the Vehicles of Men and Gods are intended for laypeople, while the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles are directed toward monastics.” However, “there is a common misconception among modern Dharma propagator: They often apply the expectations of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles to the general public following the Vehicles of Men and Gods.” It is particularly important to emphasize that “The teachings of the Vehicles of Men and Gods do not prohibit worldly aspirations; in fact, the higher one’s achievements, the better. “Wealth”—gold is not a venomous snake; rather, the more one possesses, the greater the potential for good. In the Vehicles of Men and Gods, status and wealth are not regarded as inherently fearsome or undesirable. The key is to pursue them through righteous means and, upon attaining them, to use them wisely for the benefit of humanity” (Hsing 2006b, pp. 46–70, especially p. 49). In the Vehicles of Men and Gods, status and wealth are not absolute evils. Instead, in their pursuit, one must act ethically, and after obtaining them, one should use these resources to serve society and benefit others.

Master Hsing Yun’s teachings for laypeople were designed to gradually guide them into the Buddhist path with an understanding of common human desires, even inspiring them to develop a sincere aspiration for spiritual cultivation. Status and wealth are neither wild beasts nor raging floods to be feared or avoided. On the contrary, laypeople should manage these resources wisely, treating them as capital for benefiting society. This approach to Dharma teaching has existed since early Buddhism, emphasizing that while practitioners strive for self-perfection, they should also actively engage in society and use their acquired resources to give back to others (Hirakawa and Li 1995, pp. 41–72; Jixiong 1997, pp. 43–55).

5.2. The Humanistic Pure Land in the Five-Vehicle Buddhism

Humanistic Buddhism emphasizes the construction of a Pure Land in the present world, dedicated to addressing various worldly issues. Its core philosophy is “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset”, which aligns with the ideology of the Bodhisattva Vehicle. It advocates the principle of “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character”, progressing from the transcendental thoughts of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles to the engaged practices of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, ultimately integrating into the wisdom of the Bodhisattva Path (Hsing 2008m, pp. 263–82, especially p. 280). As Master Hsing stated:

“We affirm transcendental thought, but before having such a perspective, one must first cultivate an engaged mindset. With an engaged mindset, one can then elevate it into transcendental thought. In fact, engaging with the world and transcending the world are two sides of the same coin; They should not be separated, nor should one be neglected in favor of the other. The Buddhism that is integrated into daily life should embody the Middle Way—neither empty nor substantial, neither cold nor hot, neither greedy nor rejecting, neither attached nor detached.”

(Hsing 2008a, pp. 705–74, especially p. 748)

This reflects the dialectical relationship between engagement and transcendence—two interdependent and inseparable aspects that should not be disregarded or treated as opposites. The Buddhism that is integrated into daily life should embody a harmonious Middle Way, a way of living that is neither empty nor substantial, neither cold nor hot, neither greedy nor rejecting, neither attached nor detached. Master Hsing urged practitioners to cultivate a spirit of mutual assistance, avoiding division and exclusion, so that all beings coexisting on this planet may live in harmony. By promoting the Bodhisattva spirit of kindness, pity, joy, and equanimity through the philosophy of “interdependent coexistence”, we strive to transform the world into a peaceful and blissful Human Pure Land (Hsing 2008j, pp. 221–32, especially p. 224). He further explained:

“The definition I provide for Humanistic Buddhism is as follows: “It is the teachings of the Buddha, the addressing of human needs, the purification of the mind, and the promotion of goodness and beauty. Any Buddhist teaching that aligns with both principle and circumstance (契理契機), that enhances the well-being and happiness of humanity, that benefits sentient beings, and that contributes to society and the nation—this is Humanistic Buddhism.” In other words, anything that aligns with the Buddhist tradition while benefiting contemporary society represents an irreplaceable responsibility for every practitioner of Humanistic Buddhism.”

(Hsing 2008l, p. 493)

The definition of Humanistic Buddhism is: “the teachings of the Buddha, the needs of human beings, the purification of the mind, and the promotion of goodness and beauty”. This means that any practice that aligns with Buddhist traditions while benefiting modern society is an undeniable responsibility for every practitioner of Humanistic Buddhism. If Buddhism fails to focus on the well-being of humanity, its existence would become redundant and might even be misused as a tool for personal gain and fame, ultimately misleading sentient beings. On the other hand, any action that benefits sentient beings and contributes to society and the nation is precisely what Humanistic Buddhism should actively pursue. This is why Master Hsing Yun defined Humanistic Buddhism as “the teachings of the Buddha, the needs of human beings, the purification of the mind, and the promotion of goodness and beauty” (Cheng 2015, p. 356). It is especially important to note that the Master’s mention of “any tradition that aligns with Buddhist teachings” indicates that, while initiating a new paradigm shift, he remained rooted in tradition, viewing it as a source of nourishment and inspiration to guide the development of Humanistic Buddhism. This approach not only respects and preserves the foundation of Buddhism but also seeks to revitalize it in modern society, ensuring that Buddhist teachings remain relevant to contemporary needs. Such adaptability and responsiveness reflect the flexibility of Humanistic Buddhism, allowing it to better serve today’s sentient beings.

Furthermore, in terms of the principles of “adapting to the times” and “evolving with times”, it is emphasized that all matters must be handled with firm principles while adjusting to societal changes. Master Hsing Yun made significant contributions in this regard, developing a distinctive approach based on “this time, this place, and these people” and achieving remarkable success. Particularly within the collective framework of “Humanistic Buddhism”, the Master chose to forgo certain traditional forms, such as multiple problems provoked by “forest Buddhism”. These issues led to certain realities of “forest Buddhism” being perceived as “inauthentic,” necessitating a shift from tradition and the initiation of new developments.

Therefore, Master Hsing Yun emphasized the need for transformation within tradition. His approach demonstrated a critical reflection on Buddhist traditions and an innovative mindset, ensuring that Buddhism does not remain confined to the past but actively engages with contemporary societal needs and challenges. This transformation not only aids in the modernization of Buddhism but also enhances its ability to adapt to an ever-changing social environment, thereby better serving sentient beings.

The purpose of Buddhism is to benefit the world—it is the path of great virtue, not merely a pursuit of minor virtues and small acts of kindness. Through the propagation of Buddhist principles, Master Hsing Yun established the “Buddha Light Pure Land” (佛光淨土), moving toward the ultimate truth. He stated:

“Among the Five Vehicles of Buddhism, the Vehicles of Men and Gods emphasizes engagement with the world, while the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles emphasizes transcendence from it. The Buddha Light Pure Land integrates the engaged spirit of the Vehicles of Men and Gods with the transcendental wisdom of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles. It aspires to the Bodhisattva ideal—benefiting both self and others, liberating oneself while liberating others, awakening oneself while awakening others. Thus, the harmonization of the Five Vehicles of Buddhism is the essence of the Buddha Light Pure Land.”

(Hsing 2008i, pp. 275–313, especially p. 280)

From this perspective, “Humanistic Buddhism” is not solely based on the Vehicles of Men and Gods but rather seeks the comprehensive integration of the Five Vehicles. In the process of realizing the Humanistic Pure Land or Buddha Light Pure Land, the attainment of the Bodhisattva fruition serves as the ultimate goal, with reaching the state of a Bodhisattva regarded as the final standard of achievement. This system not only emphasizes practitioners’ personal spiritual accomplishments but also fosters their responsibility to benefit society and sentient beings, embodying the Buddhist principles of compassion and collective well-being. Thus, Master Hsing Yun emphasized that the “Buddha Light Pure Land” synthesizes the essence of various Pure Lands:

“The scriptures describe multiple Pure Land teachings, each with its own unique merits. The Lotus Treasury Pure Land views everything from the perspective of the Buddha’s fruition, making it difficult for ordinary beings to comprehend; The Medicine Buddha’s Pure Land is excellent, yet with rapid advancements in modern technology and civilization, many developed nations have already reached a state resembling the Medicine Buddha’s Pure Land, where food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and medical care are abundant, and life is free from material concerns; The Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss requires unwavering mindfulness of the Buddha’s name to attain rebirth there, which may seem too difficult for many; Although Maitreya’s Tuṣita Pure Land offers an easier path, those reborn there will still need to descend to the human realm in the future; The Mind-Only Pure Land emphasizes that the Three Realms are mere projections of the mind and that all phenomena arise from consciousness, yet this idea is often dismissed as overly abstract; The Vimalakīrti Pure Land represents a non-dual Humanistic Pure Land, but without deeper study, it may be misunderstood as a form of lay Buddhism. Therefore, I have long sought to develop a system that integrates the essence of various Pure Lands while ensuring its practical application in bringing peace and happiness to the human world—this is what I call the Buddha Light Pure Land.”

(Hsing 2008i, pp. 275–313, especially p. 287)

The Buddhist scriptures present multiple Pure Land teachings, each possessing distinct merits. After comparing the Lotus Treasury Pure Land, the Medicine Buddha’s Pure Land, the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, Maitreya’s Tuṣita Pure Land, the Mind-Only Pure Land, and the Vimalakīrti Pure Land, Master Hsing Yun sought to create a system that integrates their essence while making it applicable to the well-being of contemporary human society—this is the concept of the “Buddha Light Pure Land” (佛光淨土). This ideology aims to combine the strengths of various Pure Lands, providing practitioners with a more practical and attainable path that allows them to experience happiness in the present life while progressing toward a higher spiritual goal.

By analyzing the relationship between different Pure Lands and human conditions, Master Hsing Yun demonstrated that each Pure Land has its distinctive theoretical foundation but also certain limitations. This leads to the conclusion that “the Pure Land that Humanistic Buddhism seeks to establish is one that integrates the essence of various Pure Lands while being realized in the human world—the “Buddha Light Pure Land” (Hsing 2008b, pp. 145–84, especially p. 183). This Pure Land represents a harmonization of the “Five Vehicles” (Hsing 2008b, pp. 145–84, especially p. 183), the ultimate convergence of all Buddha Lands, and the very goal of Humanistic Buddhism.

When guiding followers in their faith, it is important not to overly emphasize profound academic theories, as these concepts may be difficult for the general public to grasp. To address this, Master Hsing Yun used a clear and accessible approach to explain how to create the Buddha Light Pure Land. He outlined the following four principles:

“Living with joy is the Buddha Light Pure Land.

Acting with integrity is the Buddha Light Pure Land.

Living with freedom and ease is the Buddha Light Pure Land.

Dwelling with peace in body and mind is the Buddha Light Pure Land.”

(Hsing 2008i, pp. 275–313, especially p. 303)

These four practical principles are not only clear and easy to understand but also closely aligned with the realities of contemporary society. They further concretize the ideals of Humanistic Buddhism, helping followers realize the vision of the Buddha Light Pure Land in their daily lives.

In essence, the ideal and state of the Buddha Light Pure Land are within reach for humanity. “Joy”, “integrity”, “freedom”, and “safety” should be universal principles of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, which, in turn, encompass the teachings of the Five Vehicles. Master Hsing Yun emphasized:

“Fo Guang Shan advocates Humanistic Buddhism as a “Bodhisattva’s place of practice”… With the collective vow of Bodhisattva compassion and the combined efforts of both the monastic and lay communities, we can “transform this defiled Saha world into a Humanistic Pure Land.”

(Hsing 2008h, pp. 365–66, especially p. 366)

He further stated:

“The purpose of Fo Guang Shan’s promotion of Humanistic Buddhism is to bring Buddhism into the human world, into our daily lives, and into the hearts of every individual. By creating a peaceful, joyful, and prosperous world, and by purifying both the nation and our minds, we will ultimately realize the future Pure Land of Buddha Light.”

(Hsing 2008i, pp. 275–313, especially p. 278)

Venerable Master Hsing Yun emphasized a this-worldly approach to Buddhism, actively promoting “Humanistic Buddhism” with the hope that, through continuous education and practice, the grand vision of establishing a Humanistic Pure Land would be fulfilled. This philosophy not only highlights the transformative power of Buddhism on individual spiritual development but also contributes to societal harmony and progress. By integrating Bodhisattva values into daily life and actively engaging in the improvement of the human world, individuals collectively move toward a better future. The Humanistic Buddhism advocated by Master Hsing Yun is not merely a re-examination of religion but also a call for a new way of life in the modern world. It brings Buddhism out of the realm of distant ideals and into the realm of practical, everyday living. The pursuit of national and personal purification is not only beneficial for individual growth but also plays a significant role in societal advancement. Each of us is a builder of the “Buddha Light Pure Land”, and this sense of responsibility gives Humanistic Buddhism its concrete and long-lasting significance, ultimately fostering the ideal of harmonious coexistence among all humanity.

5.3. The Practice of the Bodhisattva Path

Humanistic Buddhism seeks to unite the efforts of both the monastic and lay communities, using the spirit of compassion to transform this impure world and create a Humanistic Pure Land. By integrating Buddhist thought into daily life and the mind, it aims to establish a peaceful and harmonious society, ultimately achieving the purification of both the self and the world. However, this vision can only be realized through the practice of the “Bodhisattva Path”, a point that Master Hsing Yun also emphasized:

“The practice of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path is the embodiment of the fundamental spirit of the Buddha. This practice follows a gradual progression, much like secular education—from kindergarten to elementary school, to middle school, university, and even postgraduate studies. The cultivation of the Bodhisattva Path follows a similar sequence: from ordinary beings afflicted by delusions, to the Four Pairs and Eight Stages of Arhats, and further to the level of a virtually enlightened Bodhisattva who has eradicated all habitual tendencies. Throughout three great incalculable eons, Bodhisattvas cultivate the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment (三十七道品), the Four Means of Conversion, and the Six Perfections, eventually progressing to the Ten Perfections (十波羅蜜). By gradually transcending the mundane and entering the sacred, they evolve from newly aspiring Bodhisattvas to long-practicing Bodhisattvas, to Non-regressing Bodhisattva, also known as Avinivartaniya, and ultimately to Bodhisattvas, who after a hundred eons of perfecting their meritorious appearances and cultivating blessings and wisdom over three great incalculable eons, finally attain complete Buddhahood. Thus, the fulfillment of the Bodhisattva Path is not achieved in an instant; rather, it requires a gradual and continuous process of cultivation, advancing step by step. The completion of each stage brings an everlasting joy!”

(Hsing 1999a, p. 153-162)

This passage elaborates on the process of practicing the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path, demonstrating how it embodies the fundamental spirit of the Buddha. The gradual nature of this spiritual practice is likened to an educational system, an analogy that makes the concept more accessible. Just as one progresses from kindergarten to postgraduate studies in worldly education, the Bodhisattva Path also follows a structured sequence—from an ordinary being troubled by afflictions, to the Four Pairs and Eight Ranks of Arhats, and ultimately to the level of a virtually enlightened Bodhisattva, who has eradicated all habitual tendencies.

Over the course of three great incalculable eons, Bodhisattvas cultivate the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment, the Four Means of Conversion, and the Six Perfections, eventually practicing the Ten Perfections to transcend the ordinary and enter the sacred. This path encompasses newly aspiring Bodhisattvas, long-practicing Bodhisattvas, and Bodhisattvas who have reached the stage of non-retrogression, culminating in Bodhisattvas, who, after a hundred eons of perfecting meritorious virtues and accumulating blessings and wisdom over three great incalculable eons, ultimately ascends to Buddhahood.

Thus, the completion of the Bodhisattva Path is not an instant achievement but requires persistent effort and step-by-step advancement. Each completed stage brings eternal joy, reflecting the profound meaning and value of the practice.

Master Hsing Yun also stated:

“Bodhisattvas of Buddhism, having realized that “Prajñā is the mother of all Buddhas” and that “dependent arising and cessation” is the true nature of all phenomena, …deeply understand the Middle Way of dependent origination. By perceiving the “non-obstruction between emptiness and existence”, they are able to apply transcendental wisdom to engage in worldly endeavors.”

(Hsing 2008g, pp. 203–95, especially p. 287)

In Buddhism, a Bodhisattva’s practice is fundamentally rooted in “prajñā”, which is regarded as the source of wisdom for all Buddhas. At the same time, a Bodhisattva comprehends the truth of “dependent arising and cessation”, a core concept that illustrates the interdependent and ever-changing nature of all phenomena. This realization not only helps Bodhisattvas understand the essence of things but also enables them to transcend worldly attachments and afflictions. Through faith and understanding in the “Middle Way of dependent arising”, Bodhisattvas attain the state of “non-obstruction between emptiness and existence”, allowing them to engage in worldly endeavors with a noble transcendental mindset, thereby creating welfare.

Furthermore, the wisdom of “prajñā” serves as the foundation for a Bodhisattva’s path to Buddhahood, guiding practitioners to discern the true nature of the self and the world, ultimately leading to inner liberation. The realization of “dependent arising and cessation” enables Bodhisattvas to understand that all things arise due to conditions and lack an eternal, unchanging essence—this is the key to letting go of attachment. When Bodhisattvas comprehend the unobstructed interplay between “emptiness” and “existence”, they can navigate worldly life with greater compassion and wisdom, facing difficulties and challenges without abandoning their secular responsibilities.

To cultivate prajñā, rightly contemplate the nature of the mind, and perceive the stillness and emptiness of all phenomena, one must embody the principle described by the great master: “Without transcendental thought, engaging in worldly affairs may lead to greed and attachment; with transcendental thought, undertaking worldly endeavors is like a civil official who does not covet wealth and a military officer who does not fear death. One can encounter riches without being tempted and face life and death without fear. In this sense, true transcendence enables true engagement with the world” (Hsing 2006c, pp. 222–43, especially p. 242). This vivid analogy illustrates how a practitioner can remain unbound by material wealth and the cycle of birth and death, with the key lying in whether one has realized the Dharma of transcendence.

Thus, transcendental thought does not necessitate rejecting the present world; rather, it serves as a foundation for seeking solace in the afterlife or the other shore. Moreover, once one perceives the “unobstructed interplay between emptiness and existence” and attains the realization of the Middle Way that transcends defilement and purity, one can engage in worldly undertakings with a transcendental perspective. This is not only the practice of transcendence but also the embodiment of non-attachment within worldly engagement, which is fundamentally ensured by the teachings provided by Humanistic Buddhism, thereby manifesting its true essence. Master Hsing Yun stated:

“Humanistic Buddhism emphasizes the Pure Land in the present moment and is dedicated to addressing various worldly issues. The principle of “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset” belongs to the ideology of the Bodhisattva Vehicle. It advocates the idea of ‘attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character’, meaning that one upholds the transcendental aspirations of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha while engaging in the worldly pursuits of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, ultimately fulfilling the wisdom endeavors of the Bodhisattva Path.”

(Hsing 2008c, pp. 49–107, especially p. 69)

Humanistic Buddhism emphasizes the Pure Land in the present moment, aiming to address various real-world issues. This concept embodies the Bodhisattva path of engaging in “worldly affairs” with a “otherworldly mindset”. It advocates the idea that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character”, meaning that through the practice of the transcendental mindset of Śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas, one advances the worldly affairs of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, ultimately realizing the wisdom and actions of the Bodhisattva path. Within this framework, Humanistic Buddhism not only focuses on individual spiritual cultivation but also actively engages with the challenges of society. The so-called “transcendent mindset” is not an escape from reality but rather a higher level of thought that encourages practitioners to face and resolve human suffering and difficulties with the Bodhisattva spirit. Through compassion and wisdom, Bodhisattvas assist others in real-life contexts, whether in social services, environmental protection, or interpersonal relationships, thereby manifesting their Buddhahood. Furthermore, the idea that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character” underscores the connection between human nature and Buddha nature, guiding people to discover and practice virtue in their ordinary lives. This concept inspires sentient beings to transcend external attachments and inwardly awaken to their potential and value, thereby demonstrating the wisdom and compassion of Bodhisattvas in their daily lives.

The proposition that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character” has been repeatedly emphasized. This idea encourages practitioners to progress directly from the human vehicle to the Buddha vehicle, indicating that in the process of learning the Dharma, “one must complete the Mahāyāna Buddha path based on the practice and fruition of the human vehicle” (Hsing 2008a, pp. 705–74, especially p. 725). This highlights the core of Humanistic Buddhism, which strives to address human life’s challenges and transform the world into an environment imbued with the qualities of the Pure Land. The notion that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character”, combined with the idea of a “Pure Land in the present moment”, forms a crucial proposition, emphasizing that the fulfillment of the Buddha vehicle is rooted in the foundation of the human vehicle. This process emphasizes the concept of the “human pure land” (人間淨土) based on the adornment of the supporting conditions, that is, to manifest the teachings of Buddhism in concrete life, so that people can feel the nourishment and support of the Dharma when facing real-life challenges.

As the practical implementation of Humanistic Buddhism matured under Master Hsing Yun’s leadership, it was deeply shaped by the social context of Taiwan’s post-war transformation. Rapid urbanization, democratization, and economic growth on the island in the second half of the 20th century created a thriving middle class and more room for religious diversity. These conditions created a fertile environment for religious organizations like Fo Guang Shan to thrive, particularly those that prioritized generosity, education, and cultural production. Furthermore, Taiwan’s increasing international engagement made it possible for Humanistic Buddhism to spread internationally, bringing its doctrinal goals into line with its worldwide outreach. These sociopolitical variables influenced not just the institutional success of Master Hsing Yun’s vision, but also the specific modalities through which Humanistic Buddhism emerged in practice. This historical context helps explain why Fo Guang Shan’s doctrinal orientation took the distinctive form of education, culture, and humanitarian outreach—integrating the Bodhisattva path with societal evolution.

In summary, Humanistic Buddhism, by emphasizing the Pure Land in the present moment and addressing real-world issues, demonstrates the Bodhisattva Vehicle of engaging in “worldly affairs” with a “otherworldly mindset.” This ideology not only enriches Buddhist doctrine but also offers a practical approach that integrates spiritual practice with reality, promoting the mutual growth of individuals and society. The principle that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character” underscores the importance of advancing from the human vehicle directly to the Buddha vehicle, making Humanistic Buddhism not merely a set of teachings but a practical guide for resolving life’s challenges and creating a Pure Land in the present.

A further elaboration is necessary. In addition to proposing the idea that “attaining Buddhahood through the perfection of human character”, Master Taixu explicitly pointed out: “One must understand that Mahāyāna Buddhism is primary, while Hīnayāna is secondary. The resolution of issues in Buddhism also prioritizes daily life over birth and death. There is nothing more to Mahāyāna Buddhism than the practice of “great compassion and great wisdom to safeguard sentient beings.” “(Taixu 1980m, p. 198) This statement clarifies that the essence of Mahāyāna Buddhism lies in “great compassion and great wisdom to safeguard sentient beings”, emphasizing the close connection between the practice of the Bodhisattva path and real-life concerns. Humanistic Buddhism does not seek to pursue a distant Pure Land in a future life; instead, it aspires to realize a Pure Land in the present moment and to protect sentient beings through the union of compassion and wisdom.

Regarding the concrete practice of the Bodhisattva path, Master Hsing Yun emphasized:

“A member of Fo Guang Shan is one who practices the Bodhisattva path: In the mountains and forests, one must keep society in mind; Standing on Earth, one must have a vision of the universe; Residing in a monastery, one must benefit all people; Even if heaven is beautiful, one must work to beautify the human world. Through integrated practice, practitioners uphold equality and respect, cultivate a dynamic unity between self and others, and foster a well-rounded approach that benefits both oneself and others.”

(Hsing 2008e, pp. 633–41, especially p. 639)

These metaphors inspire practitioners to seek a balance between transcendence and engagement with the world, encouraging them to pursue spiritual growth while maintaining a sense of social responsibility. This perspective highlights the broad vision and ideals of Humanistic Buddhism in practicing the Bodhisattva Path, contrasting with the solitary pursuit of liberation found in traditional monastic Buddhism. Here, the concepts of “worldly engagement” and “transcendence” are no longer seen as opposites but rather as integrated aspects of spreading the teachings of the Mahāyāna. Grounded in the human vehicle, practitioners purify themselves without detaching from worldly circumstances, thereby manifesting the true nature of life. As Professor Fang Litian4 observed, genuine Humanistic Buddhism is “based on the fulfillment of human life, founded on the pure mind of individuals, and through the practice of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path, it seeks to perfect one’s character and ultimately establish a Pure Land in this world” (Fang 2004, pp. 1–10, especially p. 5). This perspective not only emphasizes individual spiritual advancement but also aims at fostering social harmony and development.

In sum, the views of Master Taixu and Master Hsing Yun collectively underscore the importance of Humanistic Buddhism as a practical approach, advocating for the realization of the Bodhisattva Path in everyday life and guiding sentient beings with compassion and wisdom. Humanistic Buddhism is not merely a pursuit of personal spiritual liberation but is rooted in a deep sense of responsibility toward the challenges of contemporary society. It encourages every practitioner to embody Buddhist teachings in their daily lives, thereby contributing to the creation of a society imbued with the qualities of a Pure Land.

While this article has primarily emphasized the positive doctrinal coherence and social relevance of Humanistic Buddhism as developed by Master Taixu and Master Hsing Yun, it is also important to consider critical opinions. Holmes Welch, for instance, critiqued modern reform movements in Chinese Buddhism as excessively rationalistic, potentially diminishing their religious depth (Welch 1968, pp. 222–23, 233–35, 240–44), and Charles B. Jones similarly questioned whether Humanistic Buddhism was consistent with early canonical teachings, especially with regard to the balance between worldly service and transcendent liberation. Jones also criticized contemporary reform movements in Chinese Buddhism as being overly rationalistic, which could diminish their religious depth (Jones 1999, pp. 157–65). These criticisms raise significant questions about whether Humanistic Buddhism too strongly favors secular involvement or if it sufficiently meets the soteriological goals of conventional Buddhism.

This article contends, however, that Humanistic Buddhism need not be interpreted as neglecting transcendence. Rather, it represents an intentional rearticulation of the Bodhisattva ideal in a modern context. Master Hsing Yun explicitly clarifies:

“Humanistic Buddhism is not only the conventional truth but also the ultimate truth. Some claim that Humanistic Buddhism is merely a humanistic path and does not align with the ultimate truth of the Buddha Path. However, Master Taixu once stated: “We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; the fulfillment lies in human character. Attain Buddhahood through the perfection of human character—this is true reality.” Does this not illustrate that Humanistic Buddhism is also in accordance with the ultimate truth?”

(Hsing 2008k, pp. 7–54, especially p. 51)

Humanistic Buddhism embodies both conventional truth and ultimate truth. Master Hsing Yun referenced Master Taixu’s statement: “We venerate the Buddha as the highest ideal and strive to emulate His perfection; the fulfillment lies in human character. Attain Buddhahood through the perfection of human character—this is true reality.” This quote emphasizes that while Humanistic Buddhism promotes the cultivation of human character, it also aligns with the profound truths of the Buddhist Dharma.

Given this significance, it becomes especially crucial to stress the importance of practitioners realizing ultimate truth. In the process of advancing Humanistic Buddhism and striving to establish a Pure Land in this world, believers must focus on how to embody this principle in their daily lives. This means that in every task, action, and activity, they should engage in constant self-reflection, examining their inner mind and integrating their understanding of ultimate truth into practical life. This is not only a method of cultivation but also a wisdom for living.

In this context, the construction of the Pure Land must be guided by the principle of “interdependent coexistence”. This requires a continuous transformation of negative karmic conditions, from the individual self to the greater collective, within the framework of dependent origination. Through this process, mutual harmony is fostered, forming a healthy and balanced life system. Only then can humanity attain physical and mental well-being and experience true happiness.

Master Hsing Yun himself expressed this idea more directly:

“I define “Humanistic Buddhism” as “the teachings of the Buddha, the addressing of human needs, the purification of the mind, and the promotion of goodness and beauty”. Everything the Buddha taught—such as the Three Refuges and Five Precepts, the Four Means of Conversion, the Six Perfections, the Four Immeasurable States of Mind, the Middle Way of Dependent Origination, impermanence, suffering, emptiness, the Five Approaches to Meditation, and the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment—contributes to the purification and beautification of human nature. These doctrines are essential to human life and form the core of the teachings that Humanistic Buddhism seeks to propagate.”

(Hsing 2008g, pp. 203–95, especially p. 237)

Master Hsing Yun clearly defines Humanistic Buddhism as “the teachings of the Buddha, the needs of human beings, the purification of the mind, and the promotion of goodness and beauty”. He points out that Buddhist doctrines—such as the Three Refuges and Five Precepts, the Four Means of Conversion, the Six Perfections, the Four Immeasurable States of Mind, the Middle Way of Dependent Origination, impermanence, suffering, and emptiness, the Five Approaches to Meditation, and the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment—all contribute to the “purification” and “refinement” of human nature. These teachings not only serve as essential guidance for life but also constitute the core content that Humanistic Buddhism seeks to promote.

However, Master Hsing Yun emphasized that “the teachings of the Buddha, the needs of human beings, the purification of the mind, and the promotion of goodness and beauty” is not merely about moral conduct or fulfilling human material desires. Its ultimate goal should be to advance into the realm of practice and realization, attaining insight into emptiness. For example, he pointed out that the truth of the Middle Way of Dependent Origination should serve as the foundation, while the Four Means of Conversion and the Six Perfections act as skillful means for practice, encompassing all mundane teachings. This process of learning is akin to Sudhana’s pilgrimage to visit fifty-three teachers. Through this journey, Sudhana gained knowledge in astronomy, geography, medicine, and other disciplines, integrating both internal and external wisdom, thereby qualifying him to enter the The Lotus Treasury World of Vairocana. Master Hsing Yun explained:

“Taking the truth of the Middle Way of Dependent Origination as the essence and the Four Means of Conversion and the Six Perfections as the skillful means, one should embrace all mundane teachings. Just like Sudhana, who visited fifty-three teachers and studied worldly knowledge such as astronomy, geography, medicine, mathematics, navigation, and commerce—only after mastering both internal and external learning could he enter the The Lotus Treasury World of Vairocana.”

(Hsing 2008g, pp. 203–95, especially p. 252)

Against this backdrop, the doctrine of “Five Vehicles” becomes a crucial component of Buddha Light Pure Land thought. Among the five vehicles, the Vehicles of Men and Gods emphasize engagement with the world, while the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha vehicles focus on transcendence from the world. Buddha Light Pure Land integrates both aspects—maintaining an engaged spirit while preserving the transcendent perspective. With the Bodhisattva as its ideal, it highlights self-benefit and benefiting others, self-liberation and liberating others, self-awakening and awakening others, embodying the core essence of Mahāyāna Buddhism. As Master Hsing Yun stated:

“The doctrine of the Five Vehicles is the foundation of Buddha Light Pure land. Among the five vehicles of Buddhism, the Vehicles of Men and Gods emphasize engagement with the world, while the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles focus on transcendence. Buddha Light Pure Land integrates both—the engaged spirit of the Vehicles of Men and Gods and the transcendent perspective of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles. Buddha Light Pure Land takes the Bodhisattva as its goal, promoting self-benefit and benefiting others, self-liberation and liberating others, and self-awakening and awakening others.”

(Hsing 2008i, pp. 275–313, especially p. 280)

Master Hsing Yun’s concept of Humanistic Buddhism emphasizes the contemporary relevance of the Buddha’s teachings, focusing on the purification and enhancement of human nature while providing practical methods for spiritual cultivation. Its fundamental doctrines guide practitioners toward realization through practice, ultimately leading them to an understanding of emptiness. The philosophy of Buddha Light Pure Land integrates both worldly engagement and transcendence, making it an essential guide for modern practitioners in embodying the Bodhisattva Path in daily life, thereby promoting harmony and well-being in human society.

The path to Buddha Light Pure Land is not limited to worldly practices. Many people have misconceptions about the activities of the Fo Guang Shan monastic community, assuming that they are no different from those of secular charitable organizations. However, this is a significant misconception. As Master Hsing Yun once stated: “Many secular charitable organizations and even ordinary people engage in the practice of generosity, one of the Six Perfections. However, without prajñā (wisdom), such giving remains incomplete. With prajñā, one can realize the nonsubstantiality of the three aspects of giving—the donor, donee, and the donation—thus transcending dualistic distinctions. This is what makes Buddhist practice distinct from worldly undertakings” (Hsing 2008g, pp. 203–95, especially p. 223). This statement highlights how Buddhist practice differs from conventional worldly acts—it is rooted in the prajñā perspective of the Middle Way of Dependent Origination. Within the framework of the Five Vehicles of Buddhism, Buddha Light Pure Land integrates the engaged spirit of the Vehicles of Men and Gods with the transcendent perspective of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles, ultimately establishing the Bodhisattva Path as its highest aspiration. Such practice not only emphasizes individual liberation but also seeks to actualize happiness and harmony in the world. In the philosophy of Buddha Light Pure Land, worldly affairs are no longer viewed as opposing the Buddhist Dharma. Rather, while these practices may superficially resemble secular charitable activities, they are rooted in a deep understanding of the secular world, allowing them to directly align with the true nature of worldly existence. As a result, followers not only experience the fulfillment of performing virtuous deeds but also attain genuine happiness and contentment in their present lives.

Ultimately, the journey toward Buddha Light Pure Land underscores the integration of inner wisdom and external practice. Though the actions of practitioners may outwardly resemble worldly endeavors such as charity, education, and cultural development, through the wisdom of prajñā, they transcend superficial distinctions and gain insight into the true essence of each action. By directly engaging with the realities of the world through worldly practices, practitioners attain genuine fulfillment in our present existence. This is the true meaning of “undertaking worldly affairs with an otherworldly mindset”.

6. Conclusions

The core of “Buddhism for Human Life” or “Humanistic Buddhism” lies in emphasizing the meaning and value of life. Master Taixu pointed out:

“Taking human life as the starting point and survival as the criterion, all academic thoughts and social behaviors are thereby established. Survival undergoes infinite transformation… extending to the survival of all sentient beings, transcending survival, reaching subtlety and profundity—all take human life as the starting point. Therefore, contemporary thought is referred to as ‘of human life’.

(Taixu 1980j, pp. 209–17, especially p. 215)

The teachings of Buddhism should be centered on human life and established on a foundation that reflects human life experiences. The essence of “Buddhism for Human Life” is to regard human life experiences as a crucial foundation for Buddhist teachings, striving to guide people in practicing morality and virtuous deeds in real society. Master Taixu’s philosophy emphasizes that through collective effort and awakening, Buddhism can promote both individual and societal growth, ultimately realizing a more harmonious and improved social environment. This concept not only reinforces the practical significance of Buddhism but also provides a framework for active social participation and moral practice. Within this framework, the Three Jewels—Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—guide people to uphold the Five Precepts and practice the Ten Wholesome Deeds. This not only enhances individual moral cultivation but also helps people purify their minds and actions, thereby contributing to societal purification. By encouraging adherence to the Five Precepts (no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no false speech, and no intoxicants) and the Ten Wholesome Deeds (wholesome actions of body, speech, and mind), individuals can establish strong ethical standards in their daily lives and gain a deeper understanding of the moral significance of these precepts and practices. When these teachings are widely accepted and put into practice, they not only elevate personal inner cultivation but also generate positive social energy, enabling everyone to contribute to creating a more harmonious society. However, as Master Taixu remarked, most contemporary Chinese Buddhist practitioners merely “speak of the perfect and sudden teachings of the Mahāyāna while practicing the provisional and expedient ways of the Theravāda.” (Taixu 1980r, pp. 185–93, especially p. 189) This discrepancy between speech and action is precisely what Master Hsing Yun criticized:

“The Buddha’s true intention behind Humanistic Buddhism is actively engaged in the world and should not be subject to such a major misunderstanding. Unfortunately, Buddhist practitioners today are preoccupied with self-liberation, willingly becoming withered sprouts and sterile seeds, refusing to cultivate the Bodhicitta or practice the Bodhisattva path. As a result, Buddhism continues to suffer repeated setbacks and disasters.”

(Hsing 2016, pp. 140–238, especially p. 227)

Master Hsing Yun lamented that many practitioners focus solely on their own liberation, resigning themselves to becoming “withered sprouts and sterile seeds” rather than cultivating the Bodhicitta and practicing the Bodhisattva path. This reluctance has led to continuous challenges and crises for Buddhism. The Bodhicitta, or the compassionate intention to benefit all beings, is an indispensable foundation for practitioners of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Without it, Buddhism faces an uncertain future, especially in the face of external hostility. This concern is not only due to a lack of loving-kindness and compassion but also because many followers have a shallow understanding of Buddhist doctrines. While deeper practice is urgently needed, some Dharma teachers still have a limited grasp of Buddhist teachings and realization. If such teachers are regarded as “famous teachers” rather than “enlightening teachers”, their influence on believers could be disastrous. These so-called “famous teachers” often focus solely on the level of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, teaching stuff like seeking blessings, disaster prevention, and wealth accumulation. Without a deep understanding of the Three Seals of Dharma—suffering (duḥkha), emptiness (śūnyatā), and impermanence (anitya)—it is impossible to engage in truly balanced and proactive worldly activities. This, without a doubt, is harmful to Buddhism. Therefore, applying an otherworldly mindset to worldly affairs is not just about making empty statements; it requires deep contemplation and responsible discourse. Without experiential realization or profound insight into core Buddhist teachings such as “Prajñā”, “Ultimate Truth”, and “the Middle Way of Dependent Origination”, one cannot truly advance any meaningful Buddhist endeavor. Buddhists should remain vigilant in aligning speech with action during their practice. It is not enough to understand theory alone—one must also actualize the Bodhicitta and compassion in daily practice. The teachings of Master Taixu and Master Hsing Yun remind us that the future of Buddhism lies in the genuine practice of each individual practitioner. Only through deep understanding and realization can Buddhism truly progress. This is the only way to apply an otherworldly mindset to guide worldly affairs, thereby realizing the true meaning and social value of Buddhism. Furthermore, it is essential to discern that “the Vehicles of Men and Gods are intended for laypeople, while the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles are designed for monastics”. In Buddhism, the “Vehicles of Men and Gods” primarily serve the lay community, whereas the “Śrāvaka” and “Pratyekabuddha” Vehicles are for monastics. However, many contemporary Dharma propagators often make the mistake of imposing the requirements of the Śrāvaka and Pratyekabuddha upon the general lay community—a practice that warrants special attention. Crucially, “it must be understood that the teachings of the Vehicles of Men and Gods do not prohibit worldly pursuits; in fact, they even encourage striving for greater achievements, including the pursuit of wealth. As stated: Wealth—gold is not a venomous snake; in fact, the more, the better. In the teachings of the Vehicles of Men and Gods, fame and fortune are not regarded as inherently terrifying or evil. However, when seeking fame and wealth, one must do so through righteous means. Moreover, after attaining them, one should use them to benefit the world” (Hsing 2006b, pp. 46–70, especially p. 49). The teachings of the Vehicles of Men and Gods do not view worldly success as an obstacle but rather emphasize pursuing it through just and appropriate means. For lay practitioners, striving for status and wealth is permissible if done ethically. More importantly, once attained, these resources should be used to benefit society. The primary focus of lay Buddhist education is to guide practitioners from their natural human inclinations toward deeper engagement with the Dharma and spiritual practice. In this process, fame and wealth should not be treated as fearsome threats—like “ferocious beasts” or “raging floods.” On the contrary, lay practitioners should wisely manage these resources, transforming them into instruments of social welfare. This teaching is actually deeply rooted in the wisdom of early Buddhism, which emphasizes a positive and proactive approach to worldly life (Hirakawa and Li 1995, pp. 41–72). In the process of spiritual practice, understanding ignorance is of utmost importance. It is crucial to recognize that ignorance cannot be entirely eradicated but can only be temporarily subdued. This point deserves special attention. Ignorance is often deeply rooted, difficult to perceive, and even harder to shake. In his Dàshèng Qǐxìn Lùn Lièwǎng Shū (Commentary on the Treatise on the Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna: Breaking the Net of Delusions), Master Ouyi (蕅益, 1599–1655) states: “If one can perceive the causal relationship of ignorance, then one has found the path to liberation” (Ouyi 1924–1934, p. 462a). This illustrates that realizing the nature of ignorance and its causal connections is a crucial step toward attaining liberation. Similarly, in his Yuánjué Jīng Lüèshì (Concise Explanations of the Perfect Enlightenment Sutra), Master Taixu instructs: “The illusory mind of sentient beings arises from illusion and ceases through illusion; when all illusions are extinguished, the awakened mind remains unmoved. … good man! All Bodhisattvas and beings of the degenerate age should distance themselves from all illusory and deceptive states.” (translated by Buddhatrāta 1924–1934, included in Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 17, p. 914a) This means that “as long as ignorance is not permanently eradicated, the mind remains illusory.” (Taixu 1980o, p. 2077) Master Taixu stresses the necessity of recognizing and distancing oneself from illusory and deceptive states. His statement that “as long as ignorance is not permanently eradicated, the mind remains illusory” (Taixu 1980o, p. 2077) highlights the immense challenge of truly cultivating the Bodhisattva path within the human realm—only a few are truly capable of exerting great effort in this practice. Likewise, Professor Mou Zongsan once stated: “Since one must cultivate peace and focus, one must also minimize involvement in worldly affairs. Otherwise, one will find it even more difficult to recognize fundamental ignorance.” This suggests that deep spiritual cultivation requires minimizing excessive involvement in worldly matters; otherwise, confronting one’s inherent ignorance becomes increasingly difficult. Conversely, if one remains immersed in mundane affairs, then “what is called the Bodhisattva path may remain nothing more than an aspiration” (Mou 2003, pp. 1027–35, especially pp. 1030–31). This point serves as a reminder to practitioners that true engagement in practice is essential, rather than merely pursuing the ideal of the Bodhisattva path. Understanding ignorance and the process of subduing it urges practitioners to confront real-world challenges. By recognizing the causal relationship of ignorance, one can take a substantial step forward on the Bodhisattva path. However, to effectively cultivate this path, one must reduce worldly entanglements in practice, allowing for deeper realization through a state of focused stillness. Only in this way can theory truly be transformed into practice, leading toward the path of liberation.

Finally, some observers argue that modern Buddhist propagation methods bear a strong resemblance to Christian missionary practices and may even be influenced by them. For example, organizing various activities, educational institutions, medical services, and social welfare initiatives has raised concerns about whether Buddhism might devolve into merely propagating the Vehicles of Men and Gods. This issue has led me to ongoing reflection. Master Hsing Yun serves as an exemplary figure in this regard. He possessed a profound understanding of the doctrine of emptiness and corresponding realization in practice. Thus, behind the many activities he initiated lies the Buddhist truth of dependent origination and emptiness. Although the followers of Fo Guang Shan may not fully comprehend this profound principle, and many remain at the level of seeking blessings, longevity, health, and marriage rather than attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and death, Master Hsing Yun had a clear and structured approach to the philosophy and promotion of Humanistic Buddhism. Many disciples, due to insufficient reading and comprehension, have yet to fully explore his works and their essence—an area where Fo Guang Shan devotees should strive for improvement. As previously noted, critics have been concerned with the rationality of Buddhist reform movements and if Humanistic Buddhism risks ignoring key soteriological considerations in favor of social value. In addition, certain scholars argue that while Humanistic Buddhism upholds the unity of sacredness and universality and seeks to integrate doctrinal principles with practical applications—bridging worldly and transcendental teachings—there is a potential risk. If it overemphasizes “returning to the time of the Buddha” while neglecting the contextual conditions of “this time, this place, and these people”, or if it places excessive focus on Buddhism’s universal adaptability to different capacities of sentient beings while overlooking its long-standing sacredness and its fundamental mission of “transforming society and guiding customs”, it may lead to secularization, trivialization, or even the decline of Buddhism in the face of changing times” (Xu 2007, pp. 1–13, especially p. 11). These profound reflections serve as an important reminder for Buddhists to balance traditional essence with contemporary realities in their propagation efforts. Only by organically integrating Buddhist teachings into real life while maintaining sensitivity to the needs of modern society can Buddhism sustain its vitality and significance, ultimately realizing the ideal of a pure land in the human world. Although Hsing Yun and Masters Taixu both aimed to modernize Buddhism and encourage a more active and life-oriented path for practitioners, there are significant differences in their methods. Taixu’s framework prioritized doctrinal clarification and systematic reform, drawing heavily on canonical categorization, scholastic organization, and grand theoretical planning. In contrast, Hsing Yun’s method emphasized pragmatic adaptation to contemporary conditions, establishing institutional platforms that translated Mahāyāna ideals into accessible, socially embedded practices. This distinction reflects both individual style and the historical conditions to which each master responded: Hsing Yun dealt with social modernization and international Buddhist outreach, while Taixu addressed the national crisis and reform of the early 20th century. A comprehensive understanding of Humanistic Buddhism requires attending to both the ideological continuity and the contextual divergence between these two figures.