Inner Methods and Outer Rites: An Exploration of Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity

Abstract

Salvation through Refinement (liandu 鍊度) is a distinctive Daoist rite aimed at rescuing the souls of the deceased from hell, enabling their rebirth, and ultimately facilitating their transcendence. The Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity (Shangqing Lingbao Jidu Dacheng Jinshu 上清靈寶濟度大成金書), compiled by Zhou Side 周思得 (1359–1451), preserves a wealth of material related to Salvation through Refinement. This content can be divided into two parts: the ritual procedures of Salvation through Refinement and the associated internal practices (neishi 内事). Zhou explicitly stated that the Salvation through Refinement ritual originated from the Golden Book of Salvation according to the Lingbao Tradition (Lingbao Lingjiao Jidu Jinshu 靈寶領教濟度金書), compiled by Lin Lingzhen 林靈真 (1239–1302), whereas the internal practices are not attributed to any specific source. Comparative analysis confirms that the section on internal practices derives from the Brief Discussions of Inner Method of Taiji for Sacrificing to and Sublimating [the Souls of the Deceased] (Taiji Jilian Neifa Yilüe 太極祭鍊內法議略), compiled by Zheng Sixiao 鄭思肖 (1241–1318). Zheng Sixiao’s Salvation through Refinement method centers on Visualization and Actualization (cunxiang 存想), with the entire process taking place internally within the ritual master’s body. Building upon this foundation, Zhou Side incorporated additional ritualized actions and recitations, striving to integrate external ritual with internal practice. In doing so, he constructed a model of Salvation through Refinement characterized by the union of inner methods and outer rites. Inner Sublimation emerged during the Southern Song period, likely influenced in both principle and method by the then-prevalent School of the Mind (xinxue 心學). It sought to counter the increasing complexity of ritual practices at that time. Meanwhile, the continued practice of traditional forms of Retreats (zhai 齋) and Offerings (jiao 醮) reflected the Ming (1368–1644) rulers’ emphasis on the didactic function of such rituals. In his compilation, Zhou cited the views and materials of others under the name of Tian Sizhen 田思真 (fl. early 12th century) to articulate the inner meanings and core doctrines of the Numinous Treasure (lingbao 靈寶) rites. By positioning Tian Sizhen as an intermediary, Zhou not only established a line of transmission between the rites he compiled and the orthodox Numinous Treasure lineage represented by Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–477) but also affirmed his conscious identification with the Daoist ritual tradition and his stance regarding its lineage.

1. Introduction

Saving the souls of the deceased and guiding them toward transcendence have long been central concerns of Daoist ritual practice. In response, Daoist priests gradually developed a distinctive system of rituals and practices known as “Salvation through Refinement.”1 This system typically consists of two main components: external ritual performances—such as altar construction, scripture recitation, and acts of repentance—and internal cultivation, including Visualization and Actualization, spirit refinement, and soul-guiding meditation.2 By integrating internal and external practices, Salvation through Refinement aims to liberate the souls of the deceased from suffering and guide them toward rebirth or ascent to the heavens.

Daoist scholars worldwide have demonstrated sustained interest in Salvation through Refinement rituals and have produced substantial research in this area. Some have conducted in-depth textual studies of extant ritual manuals—examining their historical contexts, tracing the development of specific rites, analyzing their structural components, and offering detailed interpretations of their meanings and ritual procedures. These studies have not only enabled the reconstruction of early Salvation through Refinement forms, but have also illuminated the profound religious meanings and cultural significance embedded in this Daoist tradition.3 Some have undertaken comparative studies of Daoist and Buddhist salvation rituals—particularly the Daoist Offering of [Blessed] Food with the Iron Bottle (tieguan shishi 鐵罐施食) and the Buddhist Yogacara Ulka-mukha Puja (yujia yankou 瑜伽焰口)—highlighting both structural parallels and symbolic divergences between the two traditions.4 Others have traced the conceptual formation and evolution of Salvation through Refinement before its formal ritualization.5 However, the aforementioned studies have primarily focused on the formation and early development of Salvation through Refinement rituals prior to the Ming dynasty, while comparatively, little attention has been devoted to their textual analysis, ritual transformation, and socio-cultural contextualization from the Ming and Qing (1644–1911) periods onward. This imbalance has significantly limited our broader understanding of their historical trajectory.

Among Daoist ritual manuals compiled during the Ming dynasty, the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity (hereafter, Golden Writings on the Great Achievement) is the most representative.6 Of all Ming Daoist texts, it contains the largest collection of Salvation through Refinement rituals, with the clearest classifications and the most comprehensive content, making it an invaluable resource for studying the development of these rituals during the Ming period. Research on the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement has primarily focused on its historical background, textual transmission, and the life, thought, and literary activities of its compiler, Zhou Side. With regard to the text itself, most scholars have treated it as supplementary material, using it mainly to illustrate the evolution of certain Daoist rites or concepts prior to the Ming dynasty. Additionally, some have attempted to compare ritual fragments observed during fieldwork with corresponding records in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. In recent years, scholars have increasingly approached the text as a primary subject of research.7 However, its sections on Salvation through Refinement rituals remain largely overlooked, limiting the current understanding of the text itself and constraining a fuller comprehension of Daoist developments during the Ming dynasty.

This paper focuses on the Salvation through Refinement rituals preserved in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, aiming to analyze their specific forms and distinctive features during the Ming dynasty. It addresses the following key questions: To what extent do these rituals inherit and transform earlier Daoist practices? How do they respond to the intellectual currents, political circumstances, and religious practices of the Ming period? And how does Zhou Side, through his reinterpretation of Salvation through Refinement rituals, seek to elevate the authority of Numinous Treasure rites and assert his own legitimacy within the Daoist ritual lineage? By integrating close textual analysis with contextual historical inquiry, this study seeks to illuminate the unique profile of Ming dynasty Salvation through Refinement rituals and their pivotal role in shaping Daoist identity and religious authority.

2. The Content of the Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement

The Golden Writings on the Great Achievement was completed in 1432 and published in 1433 by Zhou Side, a Daoist priest serving at an imperial Daoist temple. The text comprises 40 volumes, divided into 20 sections, each of which is further subdivided into multiple subsections, with several entries listed under each. According to the preface written by Zhou in 1432, the primary source materials for the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement derive from “the Daoist texts compiled by Perfected Lin, who used the literary name Shuinan 水南, based on the Numinous Treasure rites of Perfected Tian and Perfected Ning 水南林真人所集田、寧二真人靈寶法書” (ZW 698, preface. 7a). The “Perfected Lin” referred to here is Lin Lingzhen, who compiled the Golden Book of Salvation according to the Lingbao Tradition (hereafter, Golden Book of Salvation). “Perfected Tian” and “Perfected Ning” refer to Tian Sizhen and Ning Quanzhen 宁全真 (1101–1181), respectively. According to the Golden Book of Salvation, Tian once transmitted Daoist rites to Ning. Both figures were posthumously recognized as inheritors of the Eastern Florescence (donghua 東華) Sect, continuing the lineage of the Numinous Treasure tradition. The Daoist Canon (Daozang 道藏) includes the Golden Book of Salvation, a 320-volume collection transmitted by Ning and compiled by Lin. Given the many parallels between the content of the Golden Book of Salvation and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, it can be inferred that Zhou’s reference to “Daoist texts recording the Numinous Treasure rites (lingbao fashu 靈寶法書)” likely includes the Golden Book of Salvation.

In the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, content related to Salvation through Refinement occupies a considerable portion, primarily divided into two parts: ritual texts and explanations of key ritual stages. Volumes 16 to 18 are dedicated to Rebirth through Refinement (Shoulian Gengsheng 受鍊更生門), a title derived from a passage in Volume 1 of the Scripture on Salvation (Duren Jing 度人經). This passage introduces one of the merits of reciting the Scripture on Salvation: If the recitation reaches the ears of the Demon Kings (mowang 魔王), they will assume a respectful posture and command the Tutelary Deity (diqi 地祇) to escort the souls of deceased ancestors, rescuing them from the Door of Earth (dihu 地戶). These souls are then liberated from the Five Realms of Suffering (wuku 五苦) and the Eight Difficulties (ba’nan 八難), ascend to heaven, permanently leave the control of the demon officials (guiguan 鬼官), and are escorted upward to the Vermilion Mound (zhuling 朱陵), where they undergo refinement and attain rebirth (DZ 1, 1. 13a). Clearly, the Rebirth through Refinement records methods for refining the souls of the deceased and granting them new life. It is divided into six categories: the Rituals for Distributing Food to Save Souls in Darkness (Huke Pin 斛科品), the Rituals of Conferring Precepts (Shijie Pin 施戒品), the Rituals of Oblatory Refinement (Jilian Ke Pin 祭鍊科品), the Rituals of Universal Refinement (Pulian Ke Pin 普鍊科品), the Rituals of Major Refinement (Zhenglian Ke Pin 正鍊科品), and the Interchangeable Texts and Gāthās for Food-Offering and Sublimation (Hulian Huanyong Wenji Pin 斛鍊換用文偈品). The first five categories contain a total of sixteen ritual texts for the salvation of souls, while the sixth provides several alternative documents and gāthās that can be used interchangeably. While all sixteen rituals aim at the salvation of souls, their purposes and methods vary. The ritual texts contained in the Rituals for Distributing Food to Save Souls in Darkness and the Rituals of Conferring Precepts focus solely on the salvation of souls without involving refinement; The former achieves salvation through Food Distribution (shishi 施食), while the latter does so through the conferral of precepts. The ritual texts contained in the Rituals of Oblatory Refinement, the Rituals of Universal Refinement, and the Rituals of Major Refinement, however, first refine the souls before proceeding to their salvation. Among these, the Rituals of Universal Refinement emphasizes the broad scope of Salvation through Refinement, aiming to cover as many souls as possible; the Rituals of Major Refinement emphasizes the prioritization of souls to be refined, placing those most desired for refinement in primary positions while assigning others to secondary or accompanying roles; the Rituals of Oblatory Refinement focuses on simplicity and is suitable for those wishing to perform Salvation through Refinement for ancestors or loved ones, but who have limited resources. Finally, Volume 23, titled Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar (Dengtan Zongzhi 登壇宗旨門), provides detailed explanations of various ritual stages, many of which involve Salvation through Refinement practices.

According to the preface titles, each volume of Rebirth through Refinement was compiled by Lin Lingzhen and revised by Zhou Side. Among the sixteen Salvation through Refinement rituals recorded in this section, ten—such as Ritual of Transmitting Precepts in the Presence of the Souls (lingqian chuanjie yi 靈前傳戒儀), Oblatory Ritual of the Spiritual Cultivation Method of Taiji (taiji xinfa jilian ke 太極心法祭鍊科), Universal Salvation and Oblatory Ritual of the Green-Black (qingxuan pudu jilian ke 青玄普度祭鍊科), Great Offering in the Capital of Mystery and Pure Offering on Mount Jade (xuandu daxian yushan jinggong 玄都大獻玉山淨供), Universal Refinement Ritual of the Sweet Dew and Pure Offering from the Jade Purity Grand Obscurity Great Brahma (yuqing mingxing dafan ganlu jinggong pulian ke 玉清溟涬大梵甘露淨供普鍊科), Salvation through Refinement Ritual of the Luminous Perfection Retreat (mengzhenzhai liandu ke 盟真齋鍊度科), Salvation through Refinement Ritual of the Green-Black Retreat (qingxuan liandu ke 青玄鍊度科), Ritual of Ninefold Refinement of Living Beings and Corpses (jiulian shengshi ke 九鍊生尸科), Salvation through Refinement Ritual of the Life Spirits of the Nine Heavens (jiutian shengshen liandu ke 九天生神鍊度科), and Salvation through Refinement Ritual with Tenfold Recitation of the Scriptural Method of Book of Salvation (shihui duren jingfa liandu ke 十迴度人經法鍊度科)—can be found in the Golden Book of Salvation. The remaining Salvation through Refinement rituals, which are not found in other books, were likely collected by Zhou Side from various contemporary sources. The title at the beginning of each volume of Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar indicates that it was revised by Zhou Side, suggesting that this portion of the content was not drawn from the Golden Book of Salvation but rather sourced from elsewhere. However, Zhou Side did not specify the exact origins of this material. These contents offer explanations for specific aspects of the Salvation through Refinement rituals, focusing primarily on how the ritual master carries out the Salvation through Refinement of departed souls within their own bodies. Upon investigation and comparison, I found that many of the explanations for the key stages of Salvation through Refinement in the Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar closely resemble the views presented in Zheng Sixiao’s Brief Discussions of Inner Method of Taiji for Sacrificing to and Sublimating [the Souls of the Deceased] (hereafter, Brief Discussions of Inner Method). The Daoist Canon includes three volumes of the Inner Method of Taiji for Sacrificing to and Sublimating [the Souls of the Deceased] (Taiji Jilian Neifa 太極祭鍊內法; hereafter, Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating). The first volume, titled Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating, is attributed to Zheng Suonan 鄭所南, who is referred to as the Old Man of the Three Exteriors (sanwai laofu 三外老夫); the second and third volumes, titled Brief Discussions of Inner Method, are also attributed to Zheng Suonan. According to Zheng’s own statements (DZ 548, 3. 41a) and the account of his disciple Shen Zhiwo 沈之我 (fl. 1273–1291) (DZ 548, 3. 43a), it is apparent that the Brief Discussions of Inner Method was completed in 1270 and was later revised and expanded by Zheng Sixiao himself. This text centers on the inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased as transmitted by Ge Xuan 葛玄 (164–244). The first volume provides the complete text of the rite for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased, detailing the procedures, the specific operations for each step, and the format of the rite writings used. The second and third volumes integrate Zheng’s various insights regarding the stages involved in sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased. The similarities between the two are particularly evident in three specialized essays: the Jade Chapter of the Numinous Treasure Fundamental Principles (Lingbao Zongzhi Qiongpian 靈寶宗旨瓊篇), the Jade Chapter on Offering Food (Shishi Qiongpian 施食瓊篇), and the Jade Chapter on Water and Fire (Shuihuo Qiongpian 水火瓊篇). These essays also contain entries such as the “Inner Sublimation (neilian 內鍊) Method,” the “Method for the Universal Offering during Night Retreats (pushi yezhai fa 普施夜齋法),” “Resolving Grievances (jieyuan 解冤),” “the Celestial Physicians (tianyi 天醫),” the “Method for Casting the Danyang Talisman into Water (tou danyangfu fa 投丹陽符法),” “Practicing the Internal Method of Water Refinement (xing shuilian neifa 行水鍊內法),” and “Practicing the Internal Method of Fire Refinement (xing huolian neifa 行火鍊內法).” The Jade Chapter of the Numinous Treasure Fundamental Principles serves as a general introduction, demonstrating that the main function of the Numinous Treasure rites is to save humankind. Practitioners are required to cultivate a sincere mind through the concentration of their thoughts (jingsi 精思) to carry out this practice. The Jade Chapter on Offering Food and the Jade Chapter on Water and Fire specifically focus on the principles of offering food and the internal mechanisms of sublimation through water and fire (shuihuo liandu 水火鍊度) while also critiquing and refuting some erroneous views or practices. The language used in these three essays is almost entirely drawn from the Brief Discussions of Inner Method, with only minor differences in sequence. In addition, the entries listed above—which elaborate on aspects such as Inner Sublimation (neilian 內鍊), Food Distribution, Resolving Grievances, the Celestial Physicians, Bathing (muyu 沐浴), Water Refinement (shuilian 水鍊), and Fire Refinement (huolian 火鍊)—are further expounded. Inner Sublimation refers to the practice in which the ritual master visualizes and actualizes the circulation of energy within their own body, ultimately transforming their physical form into that of a specific deity—a process also known in Daoism as “transformation into a divine body” (bianshen 變神). Food Distribution denotes the provision of food and drink to the souls of the deceased to alleviate their hunger and thirst. Resolving Grievances concerns souls who harbored grudges during their lifetime and sought revenge after death, thereby hindering their liberation. Such souls must first relinquish their desire for vengeance before they can be redeemed. The Celestial Physician concerns healing the souls of the deceased whose bodies have been damaged or decayed, restoring them to their original state. Bathing refers to the ritual cleansing of the souls, washing away impurities, and clothing them in clean garments. Water Refinement and Fire Refinement refer to the ritual master’s use of the energies of Real Water (zhenshui 真水) and Real Fire (zhenhuo 真火) within their body to refine the souls. Water Refinement aims to restore the soul’s vitality, while Fire Refinement seeks to fundamentally transform the soul’s essence, turning it into a transcendent being. Explanations of these stages of Salvation through Refinement found in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement are similarly expressed in the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating.8 Through textual analysis, this article demonstrates that the specific practices of Inner Sublimation, Food Distribution, Resolving Grievances, the Celestial Physician, Bathing, Water Refinement, and Fire Refinement described in the Brief Discussions of Inner Method and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement are essentially identical. However, there are significant differences in their scope of application. The content expounded by Zheng Sixiao applies solely to the inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased that he compiled, whereas the insights articulated by Zhou Side can be broadly applied across all Salvation through Refinement rituals recorded in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. In other words, regardless of the type or category of the salvation ritual, the specific practices at each key stage remain entirely consistent.

3. Comparison of Salvation Through Refinement Methods in the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating and Golden Writings on the Great Achievement

Zheng Sixiao referred to the traditional Daoist rituals of Retreats and Offerings as “Codes and Rituals (keyi 科儀)” while distinguishing his own method of Salvation through Refinement as the “inner method,” thereby setting it apart from the former. Similarly, in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, Zhou Side referred to the practice of inner Salvation through Refinement performed within the body as “method” while describing the traditional Daoist rituals of Retreats and Offerings as “the protocols of Codes and Rituals (科儀之範),” consciously integrating the two. Due to the differences in the models of Salvation through Refinement, the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement exhibit significant differences in both content and form.9 In the following section, I will outline these differences.

3.1. Internal Visualization and External Performance

The reason Zheng Sixiao referred to his compiled method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased as an “inner method” is because almost the entire process of Salvation through Refinement was completed within the practitioner’s own body. This flow and transformation of internal energy, directed by the practitioner’s mind, is what Zheng termed “internal practices.” By contrast, various external ritual actions performed outside the body were labeled “external practices.” According to Zheng, in large-scale Daoist Retreats and Offerings, although numerous prescribed actions and a wide array of writings, talismans, and spells were employed, these remained merely external manifestations of the internal practices (DZ 548, 2. 4a). He further argued that his method, by focusing solely on essential internal efforts and transforming souls with the utmost dedication and wholehearted commitment, was ultimately more effective than large-scale Retreats and Offerings, which involved intricate procedures to refine and save the departed souls (DZ 548, 3. 23b–24a). Zheng’s inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased primarily consists of several stages, including Destroying Hell (poyu 破獄) to Summoning the Souls, Bathing, Offering Food, Water Refinement, Fire Refinement, Imparting the Three Refuges (sanguiyi 三皈依) and Nine Precepts (jiujie 九戒), and Imparting the Supreme Treasure Talisman (taishang baolu 太上寶籙), all of which take place within the practitioner’s body. Zheng once asserted that his body served as the “master” of the sacrificial and sublimation process (DZ 548, 3. 18b). Here, “body” does not refer to the ordinary physical body in its literal sense but rather to a divine body reconstructed after being consumed by flames. According to Zheng’s account, during the Inner Sublimation process, the practitioner visualizes and actualizes his physical body as being entirely consumed by flames, after which it is restored to its original state. Simultaneously, an infant appears within the Crimson Palace (jianggong 絳宮), subsequently ascends to the Muddy Pellet Palace (niwan gong 泥丸宮), and ultimately transforms into the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering (taiyi jiuku tianzun 太一救苦天尊). This process of divine transformation differs slightly from conventional approaches, where practitioners typically rely on Visualization and Actualization to gradually refine their physical bodies into higher-dimensional divine forms. The two divine bodies transformed through refinement by fire are as follows: one is Zheng’s reconstituted body, and the other is the divine body of the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering that resides within it. During the process of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased, Zheng repeatedly appealed to the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering residing within him, seeking approval and assistance for various aspects of Salvation through Refinement. It is evident that the Heavenly Worthy was neither introduced as an external force nor spontaneously created within Zheng’s body. Rather, it was a transformation of another aspect of Zheng himself, a manifestation of “his primordial self, the true ‘I’ that has always resided within him” (Mozina 2021, p. 199). However, this method of Salvation through Refinement could not be manifested externally and lacked sensory appeal. Therefore, Zheng believed that it would fail to gain popular acceptance among the people of his time.

In the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating, Zheng Sixiao frequently invoked the concept of “Creation and Transformation (zaohua 造化).” He consistently asserted that the processes of Creation and Transformation operating within Heaven and Earth were entirely contained within his own body (DZ 548, 2. 2b; DZ 548, 2. 3b; DZ 548, 3. 31a). The term “Creation and Transformation” originates from the Book of Master Zhuang (Zhuangzi 莊子), where it refers to the generative and transformative forces of nature. Zheng adopted it to describe the energy produced within the practitioner’s body following their transformation into a divine form during the process of Inner Sublimation. This energy, described as the “pure energies from which the cosmos is born,” constitutes the source from which “spiritual substances emanate and develop into full-fledged gods” (Meulenbeld 2010, pp. 231–32). Through transformation into a divine form, the practitioner enters the realm of the Dao and channels this cosmic energy to redeem and deliver the departed souls. Zheng also described “refining the Creation and Transformation” as “refining the spirit,”—with “spirit” specifically referring to the Prime Spirit (yuanshen 元神). In this context, the Visualization and Actualization of self-immolation implies that the practitioner’s primordial spirit is restored and re-manifests as a new divine body capable of communicating with high gods (Mozina 2021, p. 186). Based on the above, Zheng Sixiao, through Visualization and Actualization, constructed within himself a complete internal system that mirrors the organs of the human body one-to-one. The Brief Discussions of Inner Method states: “Above the Muddy Pellet lies the Heavenly Palace; beneath the two kidneys is the underworld… The Fire Palace on the Vermilion Mound corresponds to the Heart Palace; beneath the Muddy Pellet is also the Source of Rivers (heyuan 河源). 泥丸之上，即是天宮；雙腎之下，即是地獄。……朱陵火府，即是心宮；泥丸之下，亦是河源。” (DZ 548, 2. 3a–3b) It also states: “When considering the body in relation to the cosmic processes of Creation and Transformation, the area below the two kidneys is known as the Palace of Fengdu (fengdu gong 酆都宮), while the space between the kidneys is regarded as the source of the Twelve Meridians (shi’er jingmai 十二經脈). When focusing on the celestial aspects as they manifest in the head, a point above the neck—located at the northernmost part of the head—is said to be the residence of the Great Emperor of Fengdu (fengdu dadi 酆都大帝). Near the neck area are the Sources of the Twelve Rivers (shi’er heyuan 十二河源), situated beneath the Muddy Pellet (also known as the Brain Palace), resembling celestial waters flowing through the heavens to form the Milky Way (hehan 河漢). 合一身而通論天地造化，則雙腎以下為酆都宮，其雙腎之間為十二經脈之源也。獨就頭上論天上造化，則頸之上有一穴，酆都大帝居焉，乃頭之北盡處。將至於頸之地，則十二河源，乃泥丸腦宮之下，猶水經乎天，而為河漢也。” (DZ 548, 2. 31b–32a) The Muddy Pellet refers to the Upper Cinnabar Field (shang dantian 上丹田), located at the crown of the head; the Heart Palace corresponds to the human heart; the Twelve Meridians—also known as the Source of the Twelve Rivers—are the channels through which pneuma and blood circulate, linking the Five Viscera (wuzang 五臟) and Six Receptacles (liufu 六腑); and the Brain Palace denotes the brain itself. Daoist divine realms such as the Heavenly Palace, the underworld, the Fire Palace on the Vermilion Mound, the Palace of Fengdu, and the Source of the Twelve Rivers are all located within the self, each mapped onto a corresponding bodily organ.

To harness the inherent power of Creation and Transformation within the human body, one must often rely on the “mind” as the foundation. Zheng Sixiao asserted that his singular mind governs all Creation and Transformation in Heaven and on Earth (DZ 548, 3. 18b), implying that the “mind” serves as the master that mobilizes and activates this transformative power within the body. According to Zheng, the process of “refining Creation and Transformation” begins with cultivating the “true mind” (zhenxin 真心) and engaging in internal practices, with the “true mind” sometimes being equated to the “sincere mind.” He believed that sincerity was an essential prerequisite for practicing his inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased. From the perspective of intellectual lineage, “zhen” (真) and “cheng” (誠) were central concepts in Daoist and Confucian thought, respectively, during the pre-Qin period. “Zhen” is understood as the ultimate goal of a process characterized by the personal qualities of sincerity and truthfulness, while “cheng” refers not only to a fundamental moral quality within individuals and between them but also to certain cosmic dimensions of this quality (Andersen 2019, pp. 46–47). Zheng equates the “true mind” with the “sincere mind,” reflecting his inclination to synthesize Confucian and Daoist thought. He defines the “sincere mind” as a state entirely free from even the slightest trace of distracting thoughts, characterized by utmost purity and oneness (DZ 548, 2. 1b). Zheng further explained that, under the influence of the sincere mind, the ritual master, through focused visualization and actualization, can connect with the invisible, inaudible, yet omnipresent spirits and deities (DZ 548, 2. 1a–1b). His emphasis on the sincere mind and the practice of transforming into a divine form share a common goal: the revelation of human nature. Zheng proposed that acting with a sincere mind reveals one’s true nature, and when sincerity attains a state of naturalness—free from deliberate effort—it harmonizes with the Dao of Heaven and Earth, leading to the unity of heaven and humanity (DZ 548, 2. 1b). This process of establishing sincerity begins with an awakening to one’s original nature and gradually aligning with the Dao. The true self in Daoism, as described by Andersen, is a state of being that arises from within, emerging out of the nothingness of the Dao through the process of inner transformation (Andersen 2019, p. 67). Whether through cultivating sincerity or transforming into a divine form, both processes ultimately aim to guide the ritual master toward realizing their true nature and achieving oneness with the Dao.

Maintaining the utmost sincerity of mind is essential in the process of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased. Zheng Sixiao further states: “When the mind is focused, the scene appears; when the mind is scattered, the scene disappears. ‘Sacrificing to the spirits as if they were present.’—this is the essence of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased. 心專則境現，心散則境亡。祭神如神在。“其祭鍊之謂歟？” (DZ 548, 2. 4a). The phrase “sacrificing to the spirits as if they were present” originally comes from the Analects (Lunyu 論語). The expression “as if they were present” does not imply the objective existence of souls (Tang 2021, p. 97), but rather denotes an engagement mediated by sensory perception and occurring in a trance-like state of experiential connection (R. B. Yang 2016, pp. 9–13). Zheng cited Confucius’s words to illustrate that the practice of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased requires a prior transformation of mental state. To achieve this, certain triggering conditions must be met—summarized by Zheng as a “focused mind.” This implies that, in order to vividly visualize and actualize the scene of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased, the grand master (gaogong 高功) must maintain an intense level of mental concentration. Only in such a state can the method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased be truly effective. It is thus evident that both “sincerity” and “focus” require the practitioner to eliminate all distractions and sustain a fully concentrated mind while conducting visualization and actualization. In sensing and communicating with souls, Zheng relied entirely on his own subjective experiences of inner transformation, paying little regard to external opinions. This suggests a potential intention to challenge traditional Daoist methods of salvation through refinement and to assert his own discursive authority.

In his specific approach to Salvation through Refinement, Zheng Sixiao strongly opposed the use of externalized practices. First, he rejected the vocal recitation of spells. Zheng believed that spells should be recited silently within the mind in order to preserve inner stillness and allow the mind to function effectively (DZ 548, 2. 4a–4b). He argued that vocal recitation is merely performative, whereas genuine communion with the souls of the departed can only be achieved through silent, internal chanting. He also warned of the harm caused by vocalization: “Nowadays, people tend to pursue vocal beauty, yet they fail to realize that noisy utterances through the mouth and ears deplete the spirit-pneuma (shenqi 神氣), while silent contemplation within the mind nourishes the spirit. When the rite of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased is performed in such a state of mental stillness, how great indeed are the benefits shared by both the living and the dead! 今率從事聲音為美觀，安知喧於口耳者耗神氣，寂於意想者養精神。如此祭鍊，彼此之利博哉！” (DZ 548, 2. 5a) He also said: “When agitated by noise, the spirit-pneuma becomes confused and dim, and the divine radiance (shenguang 神光) turns obscure and dark. In such a state, one sinks into the same murky realm as the wandering souls. If my own spirit is impure, how could it possibly benefit the departed? 喧動則神氣慒慒然而昏，神光黯黯然而晦，與幽魂同沉於冥滯之場。我神不清，何益於鬼？” (DZ 548, 3. 13b–14a) Vocal recitation disperses one’s focus, depleting the spirit pneuma and rendering the process of Salvation through Refinement ineffective for the deceased. Conversely, when the practitioner’s mind is calm and their spirit is serene and focused on internal Visualization and Actualization, the spirit is nourished, which benefits both the practitioner and the departed souls. Second, Zheng rejected the absorption of external pneuma. He identified two methods of inhaling qi: the first involves directly absorbing qi from external sources, such as the Heavenly Gate qi (tianmen qi 天門氣), the ancestral qi of the Three Pure Ones (sanqing zuqi 三清祖氣), the vital qi of the Ten Directions (shifang shengqi 十方生氣), the eastern green qi (dongfang qingqi 東方青氣), and the western white qi (xifang baiqi 西方白氣). The second method entails merging the qi within one’s body with the natural qi flowing between Heaven and Earth, a process known as the “Union of Pneumata (heqi 合氣).”10 In Zheng’s view, both practices—whether the direct inhalation or the merging of qi—involve qi from the natural world, which exists outside the body and thus does not belong to the internal process of Creation and Transformation. For this reason, he opposed such practices (DZ 548, 2. 2b). In conclusion, Zheng maintained that all elements essential to the Salvation through Refinement of deceased souls reside within oneself. Therefore, the focus should be on activating the processes of internal Creation and Transformation rather than relying on external objects or influences.

Zhou Side also criticized the tendency to overly emphasize the external forms of Salvation through Refinement rituals. He stated: “In all Daoist Retreats and Offerings, Salvation through Refinement rites are regarded as paramount. The officiant is adept at continuously accumulating merit and virtuous deeds, offering universal salvation to beings from both the human and celestial realms, and extending grace to the forsaken and the orphaned; thus, their contributions are of immense significance. In more recent times, however, many ritual masters have focused solely on ornate external forms and the vocal recitation of ritual texts and spells. Is this not a deviation that risks misleading the spirits of the netherworld? 凡齋醮，以鍊度為重。主行之士，積功累行，普度人天，孤露蒙恩，其功甚大。近代師真往往皆以外儀華飾、宣念科咒而已，豈不有誤於幽冥也。” (ZW 698, 23. 71a) Zhou regarded Salvation through Refinement as the central focus of Retreats and Offerings, maintaining that the efficacy of these rituals depended on the practitioner’s accumulated cultivation and virtuous conduct. However, he criticized contemporary ritual masters who prioritized elaborate displays and the vocal recitation of spells while neglecting internal cultivation and ethical behavior in daily life—thereby rendering their rituals ineffective in aiding the deceased. This suggests that Zhou also opposed the excessive emphasis on external ritual forms. Consistent with this stance, he explicitly asserted that “all transformations of Heaven and Earth are within my body” (ZW 698, 23. 2b) and systematically correlated the structures and mechanisms of Heaven and Earth with the internal organs and systems of the human body. It is evident that these views closely align with those of Zheng Sixiao, suggesting that they shared a common theoretical foundation regarding the internal practices of Salvation through Refinement. On the other hand, Zhou placed particular emphasis on the incorporation of external elements into ritual practice. In the section of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement dedicated to the inner methods of the Salvation through Refinement ritual, he frequently employed the recitation of scriptures and spells as supplementary techniques. This is especially evident in the stages of Food Transformation (bianshi 變食), Water Refinement, and Fire Refinement. Food Transformation refers to a method used during the Food Distribution, in which the ritual master, through Visualization and Actualization, transforms earthly offerings into celestial sustenance, making them infinitely abundant for the souls of the deceased. Since the Song Dynasty (960–1276), Daoist priests have often employed the Scripture of the Five Cuisines (Wuchu Jing 五廚經) in this practice. Believed to have been composed during the early Northern and Southern Dynasties period (420–589), this scripture exists in two slightly different versions in the Daoist Canon. One version, titled Scripture of the Five Cuisines Spoken by Laozi (Laozi Shuo Wuchu Jing 老子說五廚經), stands as an independent text; the other, titled Breathing Techniques of the Scripture of the Five Cuisines (Wuchu Jing Qifa 五廚經氣法), appears in Volume 61 of the Cloudy Bookcase with Seven Labels (Yunji Qiqian 雲笈七籤). Both were annotated by the eminent Daoist priest Yin Yin 尹愔 (?–741). Christine Mollier has conducted a detailed investigation into the Buddhist appropriation and re-creation of the Scripture of the Five Cuisines (Mollier 2008, pp. 23–54), while Livia Kohn has provided an English translation of the text (Kohn 2010, pp. 198–206). Stephen Eskildsen has also briefly examined its philosophical content and Yin Yin’s commentary (Eskildsen 2015, pp. 194–201). This scripture itself consists of twenty rhymed verses of five characters each and outlines methods for ingesting the pneuma from the five directions—East, South, West, North, and Center. Zheng regarded this scripture as crucial for elucidating the relationship between Food Transformation and the internal process of Creation and Transformation. Therefore, one should strive to grasp its meaning rather than merely recite it during the Food Transformation stage of the ritual. In contrast, Zhou regarded the Scripture of the Five Cuisines entirely as a spell and insisted on its recitation during the Food Distribution stage to facilitate the Food Transformation. In the stages of Water Refinement and Fire Refinement, Zheng noted in small characters that “no recitation of spells or use of talismans is required,” as the process is carried out internally by a single practitioner. However, according to Volume 23 of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, during the Water Refinement stage, the ritual master is instructed to burn Water Refinement talismans and recite the Scripture on Relieving Suffering (Jiuku Jing 救苦經), while in the Fire Refinement stage, Fire Refinement talismans are burned, and the Scripture of Birth in Heaven (Shengtian Jing 生天經), the Middle Chapter of the Numinous Writings (Lingshu Zhongpian 靈書中篇), and the Precious Titles (baohao 寶號) of the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering are recited. Moreover, Zhou interpreted the Daoist ritual phrase “naturally generating golden liquor, jasper elixir, and cryptogams essence” as describing the process by which a Daoist priest fuses their own wondrous qi of Numinous Treasure with the vital qi of the Ten Directions to produce an elixir (ZW 698, 24. 24b). Clearly, this method of combining qi is precisely what Zheng Sixiao explicitly criticized. All of the above clearly demonstrates that the Salvation through Refinement rituals in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement incorporate both internal and external components. Furthermore, whether in the overall ritual structure or in specific stages of the ritual process, these two aspects are organically integrated.

3.2. Private Seclusion vs. Collective Public Rituals

Traditional Daoist rituals are typically performed by multiple participants in public settings, characterized by grand spectacles, elaborate procedures, and a strong emphasis on performance. Zheng Sixiao was highly critical of the contemporary trend that prioritized ceremonial display, arguing that it wasted considerable manpower merely to create a visually impressive effect. He condemned contemporary practitioners of Retreats and Offerings for focusing solely on ostentatious displays and for intentionally assembling large numbers of participants in order to create a spectacle of the ritual (DZ 548, 3. 23b). In his ideal vision, the practice of Salvation through Refinement should take place late at night, in a secluded and tranquil location where no one passes by, with the practitioner sitting in extended meditation (DZ 548, 1. 5a). He also stated: “During the inner method for sublimating the souls of the deceased, one should set up an oratory (jingshi 靜室) and prepare within it a clean table, a small bowl of rice, a small bowl of water, and another bowl of water to serve as a purification basin. The Danyang talisman should be burned and cast into the water, along with a single stick of incense. Externally, the incense burner represents fire, while the water bowl symbolizes water. Apart from the prior burning of the Precious Register, no other items are required, and the use of lamps or candles is discouraged. Once these preparations are complete, the practitioner should sit in silent meditation for about one-night watch (about two hours), after which the internal procedures may begin. 祭鍊時，辟一靜室，置一淨几、一小盂飯、一小盂水，又一盂水作沐浴池，焚丹陽符，投之於水，並一炷香。外像以香爐為火，以水盂為水，及先焚寶籙，外更無他物，不要燈燭。方靜打坐一更許，乃行持作用。” (DZ 548, 3. 12b) The oratory is a quiet and uninhabited place where the practitioner can engage in visualization and actualization alone. It is evident that Zheng Sixiao’s approach to this practice was solitary and independent, clearly distinguished from collective ritual activities. The oratory is an early Daoist religious structure used for personal Retreats and Precepts (zhaijie 齋戒), as well as for practices such as Visualization and Actualization, and other forms of internal cultivation. Once a practitioner enters the state of Visualization and Actualization to sacrifice to and sublimate the souls of the deceased within the oratory, their body must remain perfectly still until the practice is complete (DZ 548, 1. 5a). This indicates that Zheng’s method of Salvation through Refinement differs in form from traditional Daoist rituals. It does not involve bodily movements, incantations, or vocal praise. Instead, it is consistently performed in a seated posture of meditative stillness. “When sitting in stillness, the ears and eyes become clear, the body and mind are both forgotten, spirit and qi are both refreshed, the inner and outer realms become empty, and one dissolves into deep meditative concentration, ultimately attaining a state of serene Oneness. 靜坐則耳目俱清，身心俱忘，神氣俱爽，內外俱空，泯於深定，湛然至一。” (DZ 548, 3. 13b) Thus, quiet sitting allows one to eliminate distractions, focus the mind, and concentrate the spirit.

It is important to note that Zheng Sixiao did not advocate for solitary rites of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased as a complete replacement for collective Retreats and Offerings; rather, he sought a balance between the two. He proposed that Salvation through Refinement could be undertaken by two distinct groups: one would set up an altar during major Daoist festivals to perform traditional Retreats and Offerings for the souls of the deceased; the other would consist of a solitary practitioner who, in a separate oratory, would carry out the inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased. According to him, such a division of labor was commonly practiced by Daoists in the past when organizing grand Yellow Register Retreats. In this way, Salvation through Refinement could be effectively realized through internal cultivation while simultaneously achieving visual solemnity through ritual performance—a harmonious integration of both approaches (DZ 548, 3. 38a–38b). Thus, in Zheng’s view, solitary Salvation through Refinement in an oratory and collective enactment in public settings are not mutually exclusive; rather, the ideal form lies in their seamless integration.

On the other hand, the Salvation through Refinement rituals compiled in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement by Zhou Side are all collective in nature. These rituals are typically presided over by a grand master and involve the participation of various Daoist clerics, including the head cantor (dujiang 都講), the three Intendants responsible for the scriptures, incense, and lamps (sijing 侍經, sixiang 侍香, sideng 侍燈), the keeper of the chime (zhiqing 知磬), and the announcer of the ritual petition (biaobai 表白). In the Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar, Zhou offers detailed explanations of various internal practices associated with the Salvation through Refinement rituals while also outlining the roles and responsibilities of the grand master and other clerical participants. Moreover, the ritual location he describes differs notably from Zheng Sixiao’s solitary approach to sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased. According to the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, the processes of these soul salvation rituals all include the step of entering the altar. The Arcane Formulae of the Perfected Ones (Zhuzhen Xuan’ao Pin 諸真玄奧品) records that the grand master silently recites the Purification Incantation of Heaven and Earth (jing tiandi zhou 淨天地咒) to cleanse and consecrate the altar, and then circumambulates it once (ZW 698, 23. 65b). This indicates that the Salvation through Refinement rituals in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement are conducted at an altar, aligning with the established forms of traditional Daoist Retreats and Offerings. In short, both the participants in Salvation through Refinement and the location of its performance suggest that Zhou faithfully preserved the long-standing forms of Daoist Retreats and Offerings. Notably, he did not dispense with the use of the oratory as part of the ritual arrangement.

Zhou Side proposed that before conducting the Retreats and Offerings, the grand master should enter the oratory, concentrate on pure thought and contemplation, and attune the spirit to the Dao (ZW 698, 23. 2b–3a). He emphasized that meticulous contemplation was essential upon entering the oratory. Zhou maintained that ritual masters who preside over Retreats and Offerings should devote themselves to meticulous contemplation. As he understood it, this involved several key practices: purifying one’s thoughts, focusing the mind with utmost sincerity, exhaustively investigating the Dao, deepening contemplation through sustained concentration, and refining the spirit through unwavering focus. He regarded this refined mental state as essential to entering the Dao. This idea is also found in Zheng Sixiao’s Brief Discussions of Inner Method, indicating that Zhou and Zheng shared similar views on the meaning and significance of meticulous contemplation. However, while Zheng’s method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased is performed entirely within the oratory, Zhou’s Salvation through Refinement rituals are conducted at the altar after the grand master exits the oratory. This marks a clear distinction between the two approaches.

Zheng Sixiao’s rejection of extravagant rituals may reflect both his Confucian sensibilities and the mindset of a loyalist subject. In his view, the souls of the deceased and the ritual master who seeks to deliver them are both forms of life between Heaven and Earth, with no inherent difference in rank or worth (DZ 548, 3. 22a). Therefore, when sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased, the ritual master was expected to maintain an open and selfless heart, treating them with equality and compassion (DZ 548, 3. 22a). Zheng chose to begin with “nurturing Great Harmony to cultivate primordial qi” as the foundation for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased, emphasizing concrete practices such as “practicing loyalty and filial piety” and “abstaining from killing and harming.” He believed these practices were far more effective than merely reciting ritual texts (DZ 548, 3. 20b). The former refers to loyalty to one’s ruler and filial devotion to one’s parents, while the latter entails refraining from killing any living beings—both were widely accepted moral norms at the time. According to Zheng, the process of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased was essentially a form of moral instruction through which the ritual master would elevate the soul’s ethical standing to match that of the officiant. Since the focus was on moral cultivation, there was no need for elaborate ritual performances. From a socio-political perspective, another key motivation behind Zheng’s compilation of the inner method for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased was to uphold the legitimacy of the Southern Song court. He criticized many contemporary Salvation through Refinement rituals for being absurd and disordered, driven by a pursuit of novelty and hollow fame—symptoms, in his view, of societal decline and the people’s blind obsession with superficiality (DZ 548, preface. 7a–7b). Zheng argued that although Ge Xuan had originally inherited the method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased from the Most High Lord of the Dao (taishang daojun 太上道君), later generations failed to preserve this tradition, thereby neglecting the mission of delivering the souls of the deceased. As a result, this method gradually became superficial, hollow, and disorganized, with no corrective efforts being made over time (DZ 548, preface. 8b). Zheng greatly admired the orthodoxy of Ge Xuan’s method and implied that he would carry forward this tradition. As a Confucian scholar who witnessed the transition from the Song to the Yuan dynasty, Zheng consistently identified himself as a subject of the Song and rejected the legitimacy of Yuan rule. He criticized many of the popular practices of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased at the time, instead compiling and advocating for those inherited from Ge Xuan, which, in fact, reflected his orthodox thought. The solitary and meditative practice of Salvation through Refinement promoted by Zheng seems to have disappeared sometime after the Yuan dynasty (Goossaert 2007, pp. 338–39).

Unlike Zheng Sixiao, a thorough reformer, Zhou Side did not abandon the traditional forms of Daoist rituals. In compiling the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, he extensively referenced and incorporated content from the Golden Book of Salvation compiled by Lin Lingzhen. Both Zhou and Lin were Daoists of the Orthodox Oneness Sect who held official Daoist positions and frequently presided over traditional Daoist rituals. Their primary aim in compiling Daoist ritual texts was to preserve the rituals then in use as fully and accurately as possible, thereby ensuring their transmission to future generations. Both texts center on the procedures and associated regulations of the Numinous Treasure rites, which represent the mainstream tradition of Daoist rituals. To preserve and carry forward this mainstream tradition is, in a sense, to safeguard the very existence of Daoism as a religion; to reject it would pose a serious threat to the continuity and integrity of Daoism itself. Both Lin and Zhou recognized the significance and symbolic value of this tradition, and therefore consciously undertook the responsibility of preserving and transmitting it through the compilation of ritual texts. Furthermore, they used this mainstream tradition to help standardize ritual practices among the populace. Some of the rituals recorded in both texts, based on their principal deities and the content of their petitions, primarily belong to those traditionally practiced in folk customs. Lin adapted these rituals through the framework of the “Orthodox Oneness Teachings” (DZ 466, Annals of Transmission. 8b), and Zhou further advanced this process. This suggests that both sought to reshape these folk rituals within the framework of Orthodox Oneness rituals, thereby strengthening the influence of orthodox Daoism in folk ritual activities. Thus, in both the Golden Book of Salvation and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement—derived from the former—the content related to the external forms of Daoist rituals constitutes a significant portion of the text.

4. Salvation Through Refinement in the Ming Dynasty: Evolution of Forms and Key Figures

The Salvation through Refinement rituals compiled by Zhou Side did not emerge in isolation but were deeply rooted in the social context of the Ming dynasty. Their transformation was shaped by prevailing intellectual currents and political demands while also reflecting the internal logic of Daoist ritual evolution. On the other hand, in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, Zhou strongly endorsed the Southern Song Daoist Tian Sizhen in order to construct an orthodox Daoist pedigree for the Numinous Treasure rites he compiled—including the Salvation through Refinement rituals—and to emphasize the legitimacy and deep lineage of his own ritual tradition.

4.1. Simplicity or Complexity?—Factors Influencing the Form of Salvation Through Refinement in the Ming Dynasty

The inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased that emerged during the Southern Song period typically placed greater emphasis on simplicity. As noted in the Brief Discussions of Inner Method, Zheng’s inner method—referred to as the “sitting refinement method”—requires the ritual master to sit in meditation while visualizing and internalizing the process of refining and saving the souls of the deceased within their own body (DZ 548, 2. 2a). He further identified simplicity and ease of practice as the defining features of his inner method (DZ 548, 3. 6a). The Inner Purport of Danyang for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased (Danyang Jilian Neizhi 丹陽祭鍊內旨), compiled by Wang Xuanzhen 王玄真 (fl. 14th century), similarly emphasized simplicity as its core principle (DZ 1220, 210. 26a). By relying on solitary visualization and internal realization within one’s own body, this method significantly reduced the complexity of altar arrangements and minimized the need for ritual assistants. In contrast to traditional Retreats and Offerings, which often took several days or even weeks to complete, this inner method of Salvation through Refinement could be performed independently, typically within one or two days, thus greatly saving time and effort.

The pursuit of simplified methods for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased may be closely related to the rise of the School of Mind during the Southern Song dynasty.11 The founder of this school, Lu Jiuyuan 陸九淵 (1139–1193), stated the following: “The term ‘yu’ (宇) refers to space encompassing the four directions and the vertical dimensions, while ‘zhou’ (宙) denotes time spanning the past and the future. 四方上下曰宇，往古來今曰宙。宇宙便是吾心，吾心即是宇宙。” (Lu, 2022, p. 339) He further emphasized, “The Dao is never external to the mind. 道未有外乎其心者。” (Lu, 2022, p. 286) Here, “mind” refers to the innate moral nature of human beings. In Lu’s view, everything in Heaven and Earth, from ancient times to the present, is ultimately rooted in the individual’s mind. Similarly, Zheng Sixiao once asserted, “One must never seek the Dao outside the self, for the Dao does not reside beyond the self; one must never seek the Dao outside the mind, for the Dao does not reside beyond the mind. 決不可身外求道，道不在於身外；決不可心外求道，道不在於心外。” (Zheng, 1991, p. 281). This emphasis on seeking the fundamental root of all things within the individual’s body and mind is virtually indistinguishable from the views expressed by Lu Jiuyuan. Lu frequently expounded on the idea of the “original mind,” stating the following: “The Dao pervades the universe and cosmos; it is not hidden or withdrawn. In Heaven, it is called Yin (阴) and Yang (陽); on Earth, it is called Softness (rou 柔) and Firmness (gang 剛); in human beings, it is called Benevolence (ren 仁) and Righteousness (yi 義). Therefore, Benevolence and Righteousness are the original minds of humanity. 道塞宇宙，非有所隱遁，在天曰陰陽，在地曰柔剛，在人曰仁義。故仁義者，人之本心也。” (Lu, 2022, p. 12) This suggests that what Lu refers to as the “original mind” is the moral nature of human beings—a benevolent and righteous principle that permeates the universe and cosmos. The concept of the “original mind” traces back to Mencius 孟子 (ca. 370–ca. 290 BCE) and his theory of the “Four Beginnings” (siduan 四端)—Compassion, a sense of shame and aversion to wrongdoing, deference and yielding, and the ability to discern right from wrong together constitute the original mind (Lu, 2022, p. 603). Since the truth of the universe and cosmos lies within the moral nature of each individual, attaining this truth does not require external exploration but rather self-cultivation and introspection. For this reason, Lu made “discovering the original mind” the guiding principle of his school’s spiritual cultivation. Specifically, he advocated for individuals to cultivate their inner selves, engage in earnest self-reflection, rectify their mistakes, and strive toward goodness (Lu, 2022, p. 623). In other words, to attain the truth of the universe and cosmos, one does not need to search externally; it only requires self-examination and reflection within the mind.

This practice of preserving the inherent original mind is what Lu referred to as “preserving sincerity” (cuncheng 存誠). He compares the concept of “preserving sincerity” from the Book of Changes with “preserving the mind” from Mencius, viewing them as essentially synonymous, and interprets “preserving sincerity” as the key to reducing desires, allowing the sincere mind—the innate moral nature of human beings—to govern the self and protect it from external influences and false teachings, thus understanding it as an instinctive moral act (Lu, 2022, pp. 4–5). When sincerity is genuine, the mind naturally becomes upright—this is an inevitable result, not something that can be forced or artificially attained (Lu, 2022, p. 187). Lu advocated rediscovering the original mind through the practice of quiet sitting. He advised his students that scholars should often close their eyes, as it brings great benefits (Lu, 2022, p. 581). Chen Chun 陳淳 (1159–1223), a prominent figure in the Neo-Confucian (lixue 理學) camp, noted that Xiangshan 象山 encouraged people to devote themselves to daily quiet sitting in order to preserve the original mind, avoiding the need for excessive debate and agitation (Huang, 2012, p. 2149). In his view, the process of rediscovering the original mind through quiet sitting—enabling one to attain the truth of the universe and cosmos, and to realize the value of one’s own life—is both “easy and simple” and “direct and effective.”

As a successor and further developer of Lu’s School of Mind, Wang Yangming 王陽明 (1472–1529) remarked that Lu’s approach to self-cultivation embodied a simplicity and directness that truly succeeded in transmitting the legacy of Mencius (Wang, 2010, p. 261). Confucianism, founded by Confucius 孔子 (trad. 551–479 BCE) and developed by Mencius, is centered on the concept of Benevolence. Both Confucius and Mencius asserted that benevolence is inherent in the human mind, and its cultivation consists in returning to the original state of one’s mind. Lu focused on exploring Benevolence through the inward cultivation of the mind. In Wang’s view, this approach was simple, direct, and more aligned with the original intent of Mencius. When comparing Lu’s teachings of the School of Mind with the key theoretical points of the inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased, which were prevalent during the same period, we find many striking similarities. They both emphasize the importance of sincerity of mind, adopt quiet sitting as a method of cultivation, and pursue simplicity in their efforts toward the goal of spiritual liberation. This suggests that the inner method of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased during the Southern Song period was likely influenced by the School of Mind.

By the Yuan and Ming periods, the trend of advocating for simpler methods of Salvation through Refinement had become even more prominent. According to Si Yizheng 俟以正 (fl. 1347), the Transcendent Gentleman (xianweng 仙翁) of Taiji received the Dao of the Numinous Treasure from the Three Ancient Masters (xuangu sanshi 玄古三師), and thereafter, the rite of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased became widespread in the world, characterized by its simplicity in practice, profundity in purpose, breadth in efficacy, and greatness in merit (DZ 548, preface. 4b). The so-called “Three Ancient Masters” refer to the three Perfected Ones, Yu Luoqiao 鬱羅翹, Guang Miaoyin 光妙音, and Zhen Dingguang 真定光. According to the Scripture of the Wheel of the Law to Encourage [Good] and Prohibit [Evil Deeds] (Taishang Dongxuan Lingbao Zhenyi Quanjie Falun Miaojing 太上洞玄靈寶真一勸誡法輪妙經), it is recorded that while Ge Xuan was cultivating purity through fasting on Mount Tiantai 天臺, he came into resonance with the Three Perfected Ones in Heaven, who then descended to the human realm in response and transmitted to him three essential teachings. Si believed that the Method of Danyang for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased was also transmitted to Ge Xuan by these three Perfected Ones and that it is easy to carry out, profound in purpose, broad in the scope of beings it can save, and remarkable in its effectiveness. Zhang Yuchu 張宇初 (1359–1410) advocated a simple and expedient approach to Salvation through Refinement, and among the various accessible methods, he held the practice of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased in particularly high regard for its simplicity and far-reaching effectiveness (DZ 548, preface. 1b). In the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, it records the following: “The Yellow Register and other types of Retreats are often too costly and thus difficult to organize. Given the disparity between rich and poor, the ability to perform such rituals naturally varies. Yet when filial sons and dutiful grandsons, moved by remembrance of their ancestors’ hardships, seek to conduct Retreats and Offerings, they may follow simplified procedures. Some may choose a one-day-and-night observance, for which the rite of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased may be employed; in other cases, a simple act of food distribution may suffice. Thus, while ritual procedures may differ, the compassionate intention to deliver the souls of the deceased remains the same. As the Transcendent Duke once said: ‘A single bowl of rice can satisfy ten thousand hungry ghosts; a single register can deliver ten thousand souls.’ Truly, its practice is simple, yet its purpose profound. 黃籙等齋，費用太多，率難營備。弟〔第〕貧富之不等，蓋修奉之不一。其有孝子順孫，思念劬勞，修崇齋醮，當從其簡。或一日一夜，故當用祭鍊科，或只判斛而已。然則科儀不同，乃濟度之心則一。正所謂仙公曰：“一盂之飯，可飽萬鬼；一道之籙，可度萬魂。”其用簡，其旨深。” (ZW 698, 24. 29b) Some patrons of Daoist rituals face financial hardship but remain deeply devoted to their parents and ancestors. To accommodate such circumstances, the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement includes simplified forms of Retreats and Offerings, reducing the cost of traditional rituals and making them more accessible to those who wish to refine and deliver the souls of their ancestors. This suggests that in selecting and compiling rituals for Salvation through Refinement, one of Zhou Side’s primary concerns was their simplicity and accessibility. The streamlined nature of internal practices within Salvation through Refinement further helps lower ritual costs, thereby enhancing both the accessibility and broader adoption of Daoist salvation rituals in society.

The increasing emphasis on internal practices in the Salvation through Refinement rituals is also closely linked to the development of Daoist rituals since the Southern Song period. By the Song Dynasty, various talismans, charts, and secret spells had extensively permeated Retreats and Offerings practices, resulting in a significant expansion in the forms and structures of Codes and Rituals (Lu and Wang 2009, p. 107). This transformation, while bringing a degree of prosperity to Daoist rituals by enriching and expanding their forms and practices, has also weakened their intrinsic religious essence through increasing formalization, making it harder for their deeper cultural connotations to manifest clearly. Jin Yunzhi suggested that traditional Retreats and Offerings emphasized solemnity and reverence, with rituals being relatively simple and unadorned. However, in later generations, the focus shifted to elaborating on the details of the rituals, while the level of seriousness and respect diminished compared to the past (DZ 1223, 19. 11a). Jiang Shuyu 蔣叔輿 (1156–1217) also pointed out that ancient Retreats primarily focused on the recitation and chanting of scriptural teachings, involving relatively fewer practices. In contrast, the Retreats of his era incorporated various arts and techniques, making their procedures more complex (DZ 508, 33. 11a–11b). He once criticized the practice of excessively lengthy rituals, arguing that this leads to physical exhaustion and negligence in ritual decorum, ultimately failing to convey proper reverence to the deities. Clearly, this critique was directed at the Retreats and Offerings that were prevalent during his time (DZ 508, 17. 12a). Based on the descriptions of the two individuals mentioned above, it is clear that the process of Retreats and Offerings was excessively lengthy and overly complicated in its outward displays—issues that were common during that time.

By the Ming dynasty, society witnessed a dramatic rise in the demand for Daoist Retreat and Offering. The Ming state inherited the classical formula of statecraft, which relied on ritual or religion for divine sanction (R. G. Wang 2022, p. 19). In the process of achieving this objective, Daoism—particularly the Orthodox Oneness sect—played a critical role. The founding emperor of the Ming, Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋 (1328–1398), classified Daoism into two main traditions—the Orthodox Oneness and Complete Perfection Sects—and placed particular emphasis on the former. In his view, the Orthodox Oneness Sect specialized in guiding the souls of the deceased toward salvation, particularly by providing filial children and compassionate parents with a means to deliver their departed relatives from darkness. He believed that such practices helped to “enhance human ethics and cultivate popular morals” (DZ 467, preface. 1a). The Orthodox Oneness Sect was able to fulfill such roles primarily due to the richness and diversity of its ritual practices. Zhu Yuanzhang had long utilized Daoist rituals for political purposes, a practice that remained consistent throughout his reign. During the period of warlord conflict, Zhu Yuanzhang invoked martial gods through Daoist rituals to secure their allegiance. After founding the Ming dynasty, he believed these rituals contributed to social stability, rendering Daoists indispensable to the construction and maintenance of the empire (Meulenbeld 2015, pp. 136–37). To this end, he instructed the Board of Rites (libu 禮部) to convene representatives from both Buddhism and Daoism to jointly formulate standardized ritual protocols for their respective traditions, which were then promulgated throughout the realm to ensure uniform compliance among all Buddhist and Daoist practitioners (DZ 467, preface. 2a). In accordance with his directive, the Standard Ritual of the Great Ming for Taoist Retreats and Offerings (Daming Xuanjiao Licheng Zhaijiao Yifan 大明玄教立成齋醮儀範) was compiled. This text primarily focused on Retreat and Offering rituals aimed at delivering the souls of the deceased, and it adhered closely to traditional Daoist ritual forms. This suggests that, from Emperor Zhu’s perspective, the social function of the Orthodox Oneness Sect was primarily manifested through its rituals. Zhu Yuanzhang’s vision received enthusiastic support from Daoists of the Orthodox Oneness Sect. Liu Yuanran 劉淵然 (1351–1432), a Daoist active at the Ming court in its early years, claimed that the Orthodox Oneness Sect was established by the Perfected of the Orthodox Oneness to benefit the world and serve the people through practices such as assisting the imperial court, delivering the souls of the deceased, praying for rain, averting disasters, expelling evil, and upholding righteousness—all of which conveyed to the populace the doctrine of accumulating merit and advancing along the Dao. The presence of Daoism at the Ming court immersed the imperial princes in a highly ritualized environment (Meulenbeld 2015, pp. 132–67), even inspiring one of them, Zhu Quan 朱權 (1378–1448), to draw on Daoist ritual knowledge in his letters to the emperor, articulating his vision of sagely governance (Schachter 2022, p. 735; Schachter 2023, pp. 362–66). Under the reign of Emperor Zhu Di 朱棣 (1360–1424), Daoist ritual services were also perpetuated on the more personal level of court advisors (Meulenbeld 2015, p. 160). Meanwhile, Daoist lineages such as Liu Yuanran Clear Subtlety (qingwei 清微) actively conducted rituals at the local level. These rites addressed the religious needs of local communities, fostered social cohesion, and mediated between local society and the imperial state, securing imperial patronage (R. G. Wang 2022, p. 251). The widespread institutionalization of Daoist rituals across multiple levels of society ultimately led to the compilation of two major ritual compendia: the Corpus of Daoist Ritual (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元) and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. In summary, it is clear that traditional Daoist rituals, which were conducted publicly and emphasized performative effects, regained recognition for their value during the early Ming dynasty.

4.2. Constructing Authority: The Role and Influence of Tian Sizhen

Although there are many similarities in the content of Salvation through Refinement between Brief Discussions of the Inner Method and Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, the relationship between the two texts remains unclear. First, the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, which was compiled later, does not mention Zheng Sixiao or Zheng’s inner method for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased even once. Secondly, the sources of information for the two texts appear to have no clear overlap. Zheng stated that his Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased was transmitted by Yueshan 月山 Lord Gao Dafa 高君大發 (n.d.) and that Brief Discussions was a compilation of interpretive insights—both his own and those of others—on the key points of the inner method (DZ 548, 3. 28a). Zhou Side, on the other hand, compiled the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement with reference to Lin Lingzhen’s Golden Book of Salvation, texts provided by Wu Dajie 吳大節 (fl. 1432) and Yang Zhenzong 楊震宗 (fl. 1432), as well as materials he had collected and edited himself (ZW 698, preface. 8a). Despite the absence of explicit attribution, certain phrases in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement closely mirror the language used in the prefaces and postscripts to the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased, particularly those written by Zheng’s disciples. For example, the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased includes a postscript by Shen Zhiwo, written in 1291, and a preface by Si Yizheng, composed in 1347. Certain expressions in these two texts closely resemble some of the ritual descriptions found in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. These similarities suggest that in compiling the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, Zhou may have drawn upon the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased, incorporating some of its content into his text without explicitly acknowledging it in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement itself.

In the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased, Zheng Sixiao consistently emphasized the primacy of sincerity (cheng 誠), leading Zhang Yuchu to comment that “his teachings are primarily rooted in sincerity 其言首主於誠” (DZ 548, preface. 2a). However, in the passage cited above, Zhou misattributes this concept, naming a figure called Perfected Tian as its originator. Elsewhere in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, additional references to Perfected Tian appear. In his preface, Zhou states that the Golden Book of Salvation was compiled by Lin Lingzhen by collecting and editing the teachings of two Perfected Ones—Tian and Ning. Yet, according to the colophon of the Golden Book of Salvation preserved in the Daoist Canon, only Ning Quanzhen is mentioned as the transmitter, while Lin Lingzhen is identified as the compiler; there is no mention of Perfected Tian. It thus appears that the inclusion of Perfected Tian as one of the sources reflects Zhou’s own interpretation.

Besides this, volume 23 of Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar includes a text titled Preface to Lord Tian of Ziji (Ziji Tianjun Xu 紫極田君敘), which centers on Perfected Tian’s understanding of the Numinous Treasure rites (ZW 698, 23. 1a). The Great Rites of the Highest Clarity of the Numinous Treasure, compiled by Wang Qizhen 王契真 (fl. ca. 1250), opens with a preface titled Ancient Preface (Guxu 古序), which provides neither an author’s name nor a date of composition. The latter portion of the text closely resembles the Preface to Lord Tian of Ziji. This similarity suggests that Zhou may have intentionally attributed the preface to Tian Sizhen. This passage outlines the foundational status, manifest forms, conditions of descent, and sacred function of the Numinous Treasure rites; it serves as the root and ultimate purpose of the Great Dao, sustaining the operation of the cosmos, maintaining social order, and providing salvation for both the living and the dead. Its talismans and hidden petitions are safeguarded within the celestial palaces, under strict divine guardianship, and may descend into the human realm only after countless kalpas (jie 劫). Through the practice of the Numinous Treasure rites, one may summon qi within the body and thereby attain the Dao of transcendence; in relation to others, the rites enable the restoration of life to the dead and guide beings back to their original purity. Thus, the Numinous Treasure represents the highest attainment in cultivation and liberation and is regarded as the supreme path among the myriad methods of universal salvation. In Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar, Zhou provides a detailed exposition of the ritual procedures recorded in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. His discussion covers the practical methods for implementing specific segments, the corresponding procedures and ritual implements, the underlying Daoist theological principles, and the nomenclature of the various ritual sequences. By placing this passage at the beginning of Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar, Zhou aimed to demonstrate that his interpretation of the rituals in Golden Writings on the Great Achievement was rooted in the Numinous Treasure teachings of Perfected Tian, thereby affirming his recognition of and alignment with Tian’s tradition.

Perfected Tian, whose personal name was Tian Sizhen, first appears in Daoist texts from the Song dynasty.12 According to Volume 1 of the Jade Mirror of the Numinous Treasure (Lingbao Yujian 靈寶玉鑑), a portion of the inscription on the seal used in Numinous Treasure rites for delivering the souls of the dead had been removed. This modified inscription was widely adopted by later ritual masters until Tian Sizhen conducted a thorough investigation and clarified its origins (DZ 547, 1. 11a). From this, it can be inferred that Tian Sizhen was a Daoist proficient in the Numinous Treasure rites for delivering the souls of the deceased and that he once restored the original script inscribed on the ritual seals used in these salvation ceremonies. Later, records about Tian Sizhen increased in Yuan dynasty Daoist texts, and his identity gradually became clearer. The Elder Ning Who Assists Transformation (Zanhua Ning Xiansheng 贊化寧先生), composed in 1302 by Lin Tianren 林天任 (d. 1324), a disciple of Lin Lingzhen (Boltz 1983, p. 45; W. Chen 2015, pp. 100–5), recounts the life and achievements of Ning Quanzhen and includes references to interactions among Tian Sizhen, Wang Gu 王古, and Ning Quanzhen. The text states the following:

Minister Wang, a direct-lineage disciple of the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin (danyuan 丹元) from the Eastern Florescence, had also heard that Tian Lingxu 田靈虛 had encountered Lu Jianji 陸簡寂 on Mount Lu and received from him the canonical tradition of the Three Caverns (sandong jingjiao 三洞經教), which were in harmony with the Mysterious Purport of [the Perfected of] the Cinnabar Origin of Eastern Florescence (donghua danyuan xuanzhi 東華丹元玄旨). The Minister invited Tian Lingxu to reside in his household and entrusted Elder Ning with the task of attending to him and transcribing the texts he had brought. Since Elder Ning’s heart was already attuned to the Dao, he grasped the meaning of scripture with a single glance. For every essential doctrine and secret text, he would secretly make duplicate copies. Tian Lingxu, knowing that Elder Ning had an innate affinity with transcendence from his past lives, wholeheartedly approved of his scripture-copying practice and did not blame him. Elder Ning, for his part, never dared to make any personal requests for instruction. One day, Tian Lingxu said to Minister Wang: “This scion of the Pei 裴 family possesses extraordinary innate talent and a transcendent constitution. In time, he will achieve great renown. The revival of our Eastern Florescence Sect will then rest on his shoulders. I wish to transmit to him the superior way and entrust him with the responsibility of leading the Sect—would this be permissible?” The Minister gladly replied: “This has long been my intention.” Thus, the superior way was conferred upon Elder Ning. From that moment onward, he practiced it with unwavering diligence. He was able to commune with the Perfected, resonate with spirits, and perform the rite of flying deities to visit the Heavenly Emperor (feishen yedi 飛神謁帝). His name became widely known in the capital. 會尚書王古入朝，雅知先生有道，檄充史掾。尚書嗣丹元真人東華嫡傳，又聞田靈虛遇陸簡寂於廬山，玄受三洞經教，與東華丹元玄旨會合。尚書延致靈虛於家，俾先生典侍抄錄。先生既心與道契，一見輒解悟。凡宗旨秘文，必私錄副本。靈虛知先生宿有仙分，心切許之，弗訝也。先生亦未嘗敢請焉。一日，靈虛言於尚書曰：“裴氏子根器深重，骨相合仙，異日當負大名。然振起吾東華教者，必此人也。欲以上道授之，俾其掌教可乎？”尚書亦欣然曰：“此吾志也。”遂授焉。自是修持不怠，能通真達靈，飛神謁帝，名振京師。(DZ 466, 1a–1b).

Following this article is another piece titled Perfected Lin of Shuinan (Shuinan Lin Zhenren 水南林真人), which provides a detailed account of the life and deeds of Lin Lingzhen. The compilers of the Golden Book of Salvation placed these two biographical accounts side by side, clearly intending to underscore the transmission relationship between Ning Quanzhen and Lin Lingzhen (Hsieh 2012b, p. 170). According to Elder Ning Who Assists Transformation, Ning Quanzhen studied under both Wang Gu and Tian Sizhen, receiving particularly substantial instruction from the latter. Both Wang Gu and Tian Sizhen identified themselves as members of the Donghua lineage and intentionally cultivated Ning Quanzhen to serve as its designated successor. Wang Gu, as the successor to the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin (danyuan zhenren 丹元真人), was regarded as the orthodox inheritor of the Donghua lineage.

Tian Sizhen’s transmitted knowledge derived primarily from two sources—first, his encounter with Lu Xiujing on Mount Lu, during which he received the canonical tradition of the Three Caverns; second, the Mysterious Purport of the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin of Eastern Florescence. The term “Cinnabar Origin” likely refers to the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin himself. Thus, the Mysterious Purport of the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin of Eastern Florescence refers to the teachings transmitted by this figure and collectively upheld by members of the Eastern Florescence lineage—possibly encompassing fundamental doctrines, exorcistic methods, and cultivation techniques. Volume 244 of the Corpus of Daoist Ritual includes a genealogical chart titled “The Lineage of Numinous Treasure (Lingbao Yuanliu 靈寶源流),” which briefly introduces the identities of the five aforementioned figures. According to this chart, the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin bore the surname Yao 姚, given name Yuan 圓, and style name Yaoling 耀靈; “Danyuan” was his ordination name. Tian Lingxu, whose given name was Sizhen and style name Qingfu 清夫, held the ordination name Lingxu Chengying Ziji 靈虛誠應紫極. The chart arranges the five figures—Lu Xiujing, Yao Yuan, Wang Gu, Tian Sizhen, and Ning Quanzhen—in a linear sequence, indicating the compiler’s view of their relationship as a direct line of transmission and formally establishing the lineage through a genealogical structure.

In Lin Tianren’s account, the Eastern Florescence Sect at the turn of the Northern and Southern Song dynasties is depicted as a religious community characterized by defined leadership, an unbroken lineage, shared doctrines, and a cohesive membership with a strong sense of identity. During this phase of Eastern Florescence history, Wang Gu, Tian Sizhen, and Ning Quanzhen each played distinct roles. Wang Gu possessed the authority to groom Ning Quanzhen as the next leader of the sect, suggesting that he was likely the preceding head of the Eastern Florescence Sect before Ning assumed the role. As the new leader of the Eastern Florescence Sect, Ning Quanzhen excelled in techniques such as “communing with the Perfected, resonating with spirits, and performing the rite of flying deities to visit the Heavenly Emperor”. Active during the Song–Yuan transition, he successfully elevated the prestige of the Eastern Florescence Sect within the imperial court. Tian Sizhen played a crucial role between Wang Gu and Ning Quanzhen. He is said to have directly inherited the canonical tradition of the Three Caverns from Lu Xiujing and integrated it with the teachings of the Perfected of the Cinnabar Origin, which formed the core doctrines of the Eastern Florescence Sect. Chronologically, however, Lu Xiujing and Tian Sizhen were separated by several centuries, making the account of their meeting on Mount Lu historically implausible. During the Song dynasty, many Daoist rituals and practices were integrated into the new Daoist rites that emerged during this period (W. Chen 2015, pp. 1–2). The legend of Tian encountering Lu and integrating the scriptural traditions (jingfa 經法) of the Three Caverns with the doctrines of his own sect reflects the broader religious trends of that era. Lin Tianren portrayed Tian Sizhen as a mediating figure who synthesized the emerging Eastern Florescence rites with the traditional Numinous Treasure rites. This portrayal not only reinforced the orthodoxy and authority of the lineage but also enhanced its legitimacy and expanded its influence. By the Ming Dynasty, the legend of the encounter between Lu and Tian was further developed. According to Zhou Side and Yang Zhenzong, Lu and Tian did not actually meet in person. Instead, Tian discovered the Daoist texts concealed by Lu, thereby inheriting his teachings (ZW 698, 3. 3b; ZW 698, postscript. 5b). During the Song–Yuan period, Numinous Treasure practitioners often “used genealogical narratives to link their lineages to Ning Quanzhen, and through him, to trace back to the medieval Numinous Treasure tradition, thereby asserting their orthodoxy and authority.” (Hsieh 2012b, p. 184). In the Ming dynasty, however, Daoists such as Zhou Side shifted this genealogical mission to Tian Sizhen, viewing his connection with Lu Xiujing as the crucial link connecting the emerging Numinous Treasure rites with the classical Numinous Treasure lineage.

Zhang Yuchu, using historical figures as narrative threads, separately traced the transmission lineages of both the “Practice and Observance of Liturgies” (DZ 1232, 9a) and the “Numinous Treasure [Scriptural Traditions]” (DZ 1311, 1. 19a). Since the individuals mentioned in both accounts are largely the same, it suggests that both narratives ultimately refer to the same subject—the transmission history of the Numinous Treasure rites. Thus, it can be concluded that, in Zhang Yuchu’s view, these figures all played pivotal roles in the transmission of the Numinous Treasure rites. According to Zhang, the early dissemination of the Numinous Treasure rites generally followed a linear model of transmission. When the teachings reached figures such as Lin 林, Tian 田, Jin 金, and Bai 白 (or, in another version, Zhao 趙, Lin 林, Bai 白, and Chen 陳), the lineage gradually bifurcated into the Eastern Florescence and South Brightness (nanchang 南昌) lineage. Since Zhang did not list these individuals in strict chronological order, it is difficult to confirm their exact identities. Based on a comparison of the two accounts, “Tian” most likely refers to Tian Ziji (i.e., Tian Sizhen), while “Jin” refers to Jin Yunzhong 金允中 (fl. 1224–25). Although Zhang did not explicitly identify “Zhao” and “Lin,” The Lineage of Numinous Treasure offers relevant clues. “Zhao” likely refers to Zhao Dezhen 趙德真 (n.d.), style name Yifu 義夫, a disciple of Ning Quanzhen who later succeeded him as patriarch of the Eastern Florescence lineage. “Lin” most likely refers to Lin Lingzhen. According to the Perfected Lin of Shuinan, Lin Lingzhen was recognized as a successor of the Eastern Florescence lineage. He pioneered its renewed direction and was honored with the title “True Master” (zhenshi 真師). As for “Bai,” neither Zhang Yuchu’s narrative nor other Daoist sources provide clear documentation. The Southern Song Daoist Bai Yuchan 白玉蟾 (1134–1229) did provide explanations of Salvation through Refinement practices that included references to South Brightness, which may later have led to the creation of apocryphal texts falsely attributed to him. This likely explains Zhang Yuchu’s inclusion of his name (Yokote 2006, p. 131). In any case, the division into these branches, as described by Zhang Yuchu, likely took place between the late Northern Song and early Southern Song periods.

A close examination of early Daoist texts reveals that among the five figures listed by Zhang Yuchu, three were connected to the Eastern Florescence lineage. However, Zhang did not explicitly identify the representative figures or texts of the Eastern Florescence lineage. Instead, he provided a more detailed discussion of its counterpart—the South Brightness lineage. He traced the origins of the method for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased back to the Immortal Lord Ge Xuan, noting that several lineages transmitted Ge Xuan’s ritual system, including the Cinnabar Yang (danyang 丹陽), Cavernous Yang (dongyang 洞陽), Pervading Light (tongming 通明), Jade Yang (yuyang 玉陽), and Solar Essence (yangjing 陽晶) lineages, among which the Cinnabar Yang was regarded as the most prominent. According to Zhang, the Cinnabar Yang tradition derived from the South Brightness lineage, itself a lineage of the Numinous Treasure Rites transmission. He further argued that the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased, compiled by Zheng Sixiao, most thoroughly encapsulated the essence of the Cinnabar Yang rites (DZ 548, foreword. 1b). Based on his description, the South Brightness lineage was a Daoist current that specialized in rituals for delivering the souls of the deceased. It can thus be inferred that the Eastern Florescence lineage may also have evolved around specific practices for salvific deliverance. In other words, the differentiation between Eastern Florescence and South Brightness lies primarily in their differing approaches to postmortem salvation. Therefore, neither lineage functioned as a formal Daoist institution in the traditional sense—they lacked centralized leadership, fixed organizational structures, and a clearly defined membership. It is evident that the Eastern Florescence lineage, as understood by Zhang Yuchu, differs significantly in its organizational form from the Eastern Florescence lineage portrayed by Lin Tianren. Overall, the narrative and transmission of the Eastern Florescence lineage were likely constructed by Daoist practitioners after the fourteenth century. In earlier classical records, these lineages were primarily identified with the broader Numinous Treasure tradition (Hsieh 2012b, p. 183).

The rituals and practices performed by Zhou Side primarily comprised two systems: the Salvific Tenets of the Numinous Treasure 靈寶度人之旨 and the Method of the Five Thunders of the Fire Court 五雷火府之法 (ZW 698, postscript. 1b). The Salvific Tenets of the Numinous Treasure refers to rites bearing the name “Numinous Treasure” and aimed at the salvation of the deceased. More specifically, it denotes the salvation rites recorded in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, much of which were derived from the Golden Book of Salvation preserved in the Daoist Canon. Zhou stated that his knowledge of the Golden Book of Salvation was transmitted to him by master Qiu Yue’an 丘月庵 (fl. late 14th century). Qiu deeply believed in the text’s value for his religious tradition but lamented that he had never found a suitable successor to carry it forward. Upon hearing this, Zhou volunteered to take on the responsibility of transmission. Qiu then elucidated the profound essence of the text to Zhou. Shortly thereafter, Qiu passed away, and Zhou devoted himself to studying this text in solitude for over two decades, eventually compiling it into the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement (ZW 698, preface. 7a–7b). This salvation method was regarded at the time as a key ritual practice within the Eastern Florescence lineage, which itself was considered a branch of the broader Numinous Treasure tradition. According to Zhou’s account, it appears that Qiu entrusted the contents of the Golden Book of Salvation to him alone.

Zhou Side placed great importance on the ritual legacy left by Tian Sizhen, striving to promote and transmit it with utmost dedication. From a young age, he devoted himself to studying the fundamental principles of the Numinous Treasure as articulated by Tian Sizhen, delving deeper into and elaborating on their profound metaphysical meanings (ZW 698, preface. 4b–5a). Later, Zhou compiled a three-volume text based on the talismans, petitions, and esoteric teachings transmitted by Tian, which he then widely disseminated among like-minded practitioners (ZW 698, epilogue. 2a). Recognizing that Tian’s texts did not offer a fully comprehensive system, Zhou supplemented them with the book of salvation compiled by Lin Lingzhen, along with various ritual protocols derived from his own daily practice. He integrated all of these materials into a relatively complete and systematic compilation, which he titled Golden Writings on the Great Achievement (ZW 698, postscript. 2a). Zhou transmitted this extensive body of Numinous Treasure rites to his disciples. For instance, Lin Chun 林春 (fl. early 15th century) received the method of Offerings to the Water Administration, which emphasized “sincerity in practice” (Guo, 2016, p. 1082). Alchemical Master Xiao 蕭 was instructed in the Numinous Treasure Ritual of Retreats (Wang and Tao, 2014, p. 370). In the Jiujishan 丫髻山 area near the capital, Daoists from Zhou’s lineage were active and were identified as belonging to the “Numinous Treasure Sect of Ancestor Zhou” (zhouzu lingbao pai 周祖靈寶派) (Chen and Zheng 2015, p. 72). From the name of the sect, it can be inferred that the lineage it transmitted was likely the Numinous Treasure rites of Zhou Side.

In the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, Zhou Side meticulously delineates the transmission lineages of the “Dao of clarity, tranquility, and non-action” and the Numinous Treasure texts prior to the Ming dynasty (ZW 698, 3. 3a–3b). The Dao of clarity, tranquility, and non-action, regarded as the highest Daoist ideal, is said to originate from the Ancestral Pneuma of Original Commencement (yuanshi zuqi 元始祖氣). It was first expressed in written form by the Most High Lord Lao (taishang laojun 太上老君) through the composition of the Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue (Daode Jing 道德經), which subsequently served as a guide for both personal moral cultivation and political aspiration. This Dao was subsequently transmitted through the Ten Masters of Chaotic Origin (xuanyuan shizi 玄元十子). These so-called “Ten Masters of Chaotic Origin” include Guan Yinzi 關尹子, Wen Zi 文子, Geng Sangzi 庚桑子, Nan Rongzi 南榮子, Yin Wenzi 尹文子, Shi Chengzi 士成子, Sheng Quzi 省瞿子, Bai Juzi 柏矩子, Lie Zi 列子, and Zhuang Zi 莊子. From this, it is evident that, in Zhou’s view, the early transmission of the Dao was primarily manifested as intellectual discourse. Since the Eastern Han (25–220) period, the concept of the Dao began to take concrete form in religious practice. During this period, Zhang Daoling 張道陵 (34–156) founded the Orthodox Oneness Sect, performing Offerings to Heaven, venerating the spirits of the deceased, protecting the state, and dispelling evil. In the Three Kingdoms (220–280) period, Ge Xuan performed acts of salvation in the netherworld and ultimately achieved transcendence. In the Northern Wei (386–534), Kou Qianzhi 寇謙之 (365–448) greatly elaborated and systematized Daoist liturgical texts and ritual protocols. In the Tang dynasty (618–907), Ye Jing 葉靖 (Tang dynasty; exact dates unknown) practiced rites involving flying deities through respiratory regulations and employed the Divine Tiger (shenhu 神虎) for use in summoning the souls of the deceased, while Du Guangting 杜光庭 (850–933) undertook the compilation and systematization of the Yellow Register Retreat and Offerings. By the Northern Song, Lin Lingsu 林靈素 (1075–1119) established the Great Rites of the Divine Empyrean (shenxiao dafa 神霄大法), which he widely promoted among the populace. The rituals and techniques practiced by these eminent Daoist figures further enriched the meaning of the Dao and significantly expanded its influence. On the other hand, the August One of Heavenly Perfection (tianzhen huangren 天真皇人) personally inscribed the Numinous Treasure scriptures, which were later transmitted to the human world and secretly preserved by Lu Xiujing (style name Jianji 簡寂). This indicates that, prior to the Southern Song Dynasty, the transmission trajectories of the “Dao of clarity, tranquility, and non-action” and the Numinous Treasure texts remained entirely independent, with no intersection between the two. During the Southern Song, Tian Sizhen discovered the texts hidden by Lu Xiujing in a stone grotto on Mount Lu. Using these texts, he began to initiate disciples and transmit teachings, gradually forming distinct lineages represented by figures such as Wang 王, Ning 寧, and Jin 金, each of whom came to be regarded as a founding patriarch. In 461, Lu Xiujing established the Abbey of the Great Emptiness (taixu guan 太虛觀) at the southern foot of Jinji Peak 金雞峰 on Mount Lu, where he cultivated the Dao. After responding to the imperial summons, he came out of seclusion and passed away in 477 in Jiankang 建康 (present-day Nanjing 南京, Jiangsu 江蘇). He was subsequently buried at Mount Lu. Based on these historical records, Zhou identifies Mount Lu as the location where the Perfected Tian acquired Lu Xiujing’s text. “Ning” here likely refers to Ning Quanzhen, while the identities of “Wang” and “Jin” are not explicitly clarified in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. Based on chronological inference, however, they may be identified as Wang Qizhen and Jin Yunzhong. It is evident that Tian played a pivotal role in the transmission of the Numinous Treasure liturgical texts and ritual protocols, serving as a crucial link between the past and future. He integrated the ancient Numinous Treasure tradition with the increasingly enriched and widely practiced Dao of clarity, tranquility, and non-action, positioning himself as a synthesizing figure of his time. Through the transmission of the Numinous Treasure rites, he trained a number of eminent Daoists and established multiple lineages, thereby advancing and embodying the practical realization of the Dao. Later, Liu Yongguang 留用光 (?–1206) and Lin Lingzhen compiled the liturgical exegesis of the Numinous Treasure from various lineages into a comprehensive volume. The Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, centered on the Scripture on Salvation and grounded in the Dao of clarity, tranquility, and non-action, incorporates diverse elements of Daoist rituals and technical practices, thereby forming the Great Rites of the Numinous Treasure (lingbao dafa 靈寶大法). Therefore, this account of the transmission serves as a focused exposition of the origins of the core content in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement.

Zhou Side’s deliberate emphasis on the figure of Tian Sizhen may have been intended to distinguish his own Daoist lineage from the increasingly influential Clear Subtlety Sect, led at the time by Liu Yuanran.13 Liu was a pivotal Daoist figure who shaped the development and characteristics of Daoism in that era, making him an essential starting point for any serious study of Ming Daoism (R. G. Wang 2022, p. 60). He inherited the Clear Subtlety methods from his master Zhao Yizhen 趙宜真 (?–1382), which encompassed salvific ritual practices such as the Jade Palace Retreat (yuchen zhai 玉宸齋), Yellow Register Retreat, and Jade Register Retreat (yulu zhai 玉籙齋) from the Numinous Treasure tradition, as well as the Jade Yang methods of Salvation through Refinement originating with Ge Xuan (R. G. Wang 2022, pp. 71–73). According to Liu, the Oblatory Refinement method he practiced had been compiled by Zhao Yizhen from the teachings of both Ge Xuan and Sa Shoujian 薩守堅 (fl. early 12th century) and was then transmitted to him. Liu began transmitting his teachings in Jiangxi 江西 and later traveled extensively to locations such as Nanjing 南京, Beijing 北京, and Kunming 昆明, where he accepted disciples and established a ritual lineage. On the other hand, the salvific rituals of the Numinous Treasure practiced by Zhou Side were inherited from a group of Daoists united by a shared commitment to the Numinous Treasure tradition, later known as the Eastern Florescence Sect (or lineage). They frequently conducted rites in the Zhejiang 浙江 region, indicating that their activities were primarily concentrated there. Zhou studied under Qiu Yue’an, a Daoist priest at the Zongyang Palace (zongyang gong 宗陽宮) in Hangzhou 杭州, during which time he received the Golden Book of Salvation. This suggests that the ritual system of this Daoist group continued to exert influence in the Zhejiang region well into the Ming dynasty. The contents of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement reveal that Zhou incorporated little to no material from the Clear Subtlety rites. Moreover, the practice of Salvation through Refinement presented in Zhou’s text differs from that transmitted by Liu Yuanran. Zhou himself claimed that through the Salvation through Refinement of Cinnabar Yang, he was able to rescue the souls of the deceased from the underworld, enable them to attach to newly refined bodies, and thereby restore them to life (ZW 698, 17. 12a). As previously noted, Zhou drew inspiration from Zheng’s Inner Method for Sacrificing and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased, which Zhang Yuchu regarded as a representative example of the Cinnabar Yang Oblatory Refinement. It is thus evident that the ritual systems of Retreats, Offerings, and Salvation through Refinement transmitted by Zhou Side and Liu Yuanran, while both situated within the broader framework of Numinous Treasure rites, differ significantly in their ritual characteristics, historical origins, and geographic dissemination.

In summary, the series of inner methods for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased that emerged during the Southern Song dynasty exhibit significant alignment with the principles and methods of the School of Mind in delivering the souls of the deceased. Zheng Sixiao’s inner method for sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased—later incorporated by Zhou Side into the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement—became an essential component of the internal practices within the Salvation through Refinement rituals. Zhou linked the ritual framework that combined internal refinement with external performance to the pivotal figure of Tian Sizhen. Tian Sizhen, active around the transition between the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, was renowned for his expertise in rituals for the Salvation through Refinement. By the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), Daoists who practiced the Great Rites of the Numinous Treasure and identified with the Eastern Florescence lineage venerated Ning Quanzhen and composed hagiographies in his honor. In the hagiography, Tian is depicted as the Daoist master of Ning Quanzhen. He not only directly inherited the orthodox teachings transmitted by Lu Xiujing, but also passed them on to Ning Quanzhen, thereby laying a crucial foundation for the flourishing of the Eastern Florescence lineage. This underscores Tian’s pivotal role as a transitional figure in the transmission of the Numinous Treasure rites. By the Ming dynasty, Zhou frequently cited doctrinal materials attributed to Tian in his compilation of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, using them to articulate the fundamental principles and core concepts of his Numinous Treasure. His approach was intended to demonstrate that the Retreats, Offerings, and Salvation through Refinement he transmitted and systematized were guided by Tian’s Numinous Treasure thought, which, in turn, traced its lineage back to the Numinous Treasure tradition passed down by the eminent Daoist ritual master Lu Xiujing. In terms of sectarian identity, historical lineage, and regional dissemination, this system of Numinous Treasure rites was clearly distinct from the Clear Subtlety tradition associated with Liu Yuanran.

5. Conclusions

Based on the aforementioned examination, we can summarize the responses to the questions raised in the introduction as follows: First, the Salvation through Refinement rituals recorded in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement represent a significant departure from the earlier, externally oriented mode of Retreats and Offerings. Zhou Side built upon the established framework of Numinous Treasure Retreats and Offerings, particularly as outlined in the Golden Book of Salvation compiled by Lin Lingzhen. At the same time, he incorporated internal practices from Zheng Sixiao’s Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating the Souls of the Deceased, embedding the Salvation through Refinement ritual within the ritual master’s own body. These Salvation through Refinement rituals harmonize altar-based performance with internal bodily cultivation, thereby dissolving the boundary between altar and body and integrating the two into a unified ritual domain.

Second, these inheritances and transformations reflected broader intellectual and religious currents of the Ming dynasty. On the one hand, Zhou’s ritual system drew upon the introspective and simplifying tendencies of the School of Mind, offering a corrective to the increasingly elaborate Daoist liturgies of his time. On the other hand, it responded to the expectations of imperial authorities, who regarded Daoist rituals as instruments for moral cultivation and the regulation of social order. By integrating internal cultivation into the traditional Daoist ritual framework, Zhou formulated a mode of Salvation through Refinement that was not only accessible in practice, but also effective in delivering the souls of the deceased and promoting moral instruction in society.

Finally, Zhou’s elevation of Tian Sizhen as the authoritative patriarch of Numinous Treasure rites both constructed a legitimate ritual lineage and affirmed his sectarian identity. By tracing Tian’s lineage back to Lu Xiujing, Zhou anchored his own tradition within the orthodox Numinous Treasure lineage, while marking a clear distinction from the then-popular Clear Subtlety lineage associated with Liu Yuanran. This strategic invocation of lineage reinforced the authority of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement within the historical transmission of Numinous Treasure rites, and affirmed the distinct value of Zhou’s ritual tradition.

In sum, the Salvation through Refinement rituals in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement exemplify a creative synthesis of internal and external practice, historical legitimation, and ritual transformation. These rituals demonstrate the adaptability of Daoist liturgy across historical contexts, and reveal how Daoist elites like Zhou adjusted traditional ritual forms to respond to contemporary needs and reshape the religious authority that underlies their ritual traditions.