Inner Methods and Outer Rites: An Exploration of Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The Content of the Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement
3. Comparison of Salvation Through Refinement Methods in the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating and Golden Writings on the Great Achievement
3.1. Internal Visualization and External Performance
3.2. Private Seclusion vs. Collective Public Rituals
4. Salvation Through Refinement in the Ming Dynasty: Evolution of Forms and Key Figures
4.1. Simplicity or Complexity?—Factors Influencing the Form of Salvation Through Refinement in the Ming Dynasty
4.2. Constructing Authority: The Role and Influence of Tian Sizhen
5. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Volume | Contents | |
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Section | Sub-Section | |
Vol. 1 (Jia 甲 Collection, Upper Volume) | Texts of Invocations and Eulogies from the Mysterious Teaching (Xuanjiao Zhusong 玄教祝頌門) | |
Application of Eulogies and Chants (Zanchang Yingyong 讚唱應用門) | Eulogies and Hymns for Liturgy (Fashi 法事品) | |
Vol. 2 (Jia Collection, Lower Volume) | Transcription of Announcements for Altar Construction (Tengci Qijian 謄詞啟建門) | Texts for Sealing and Dispatching (Fajian 發緘品) |
Texts for the Raising of the Ritual Banner (Yangfan 揚旛品) | ||
Texts for Divine Ritual Altars (Shenmu 神幕品) | ||
Rituals for Transmitting the Jade Slips through the Divine Tiger (Shenhu Yuzha Yi 神虎玉劄儀品) | ||
Texts for the Construction of the Ritual Straw Enclosure and the Cold Forest (Jiaokuo Hanlin 茭廓寒林品) | ||
Rituals and Texts for Covering the Coffin (Yanguan 掩棺品) | ||
Vol. 3 (Yi 乙 Collection, Upper Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch (Chaozhen Yedi 朝真謁帝門) | Explanatory Texts on the Dao (Yandao 演道品) |
Texts for the Altar (Shimu 師幕品) | ||
Rituals and Texts for the Covenant with Heaven and the Proclamation to Earth (Mengtian Gaodi 盟天告地品) | ||
Nocturnal Announcement Ritual for Purifying the Deceased (Qingwang Suqi Yi 清亡宿啟儀品) | ||
True Writs for Petitions and Incantations (Zhenwen 真文品) | ||
Rites of Confirmation of the Officiants and the Subsequent Promulgation of the Rules to be Observed during the Service (Buzhi Jiejin 補職戒禁品) | ||
Texts of Vows and Commemorations (Yuan Nian 願念品) | ||
Vol. 4 (Yi Collection, Lower Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch | Rituals and Texts for the Transmission of the Lamp (Fendeng 分燈品) |
Rituals for the Use of Ritual Instruments (Zhiqi 制器品) | ||
Rituals for Purification of the Altar (Jingtan 淨壇品) | ||
Opening Declarations of the Rituals (Kaiqi 開啟品) | ||
Texts for Drawing Up the Curtain (Juanlian 捲簾品) | ||
Protecting the Spirit of the Audiences with the Perfected Ones (Chaozhen Weiling 朝真衛靈品) | ||
Opening of the Incense Burner of the Audiences with the Perfected Ones (Chaozhen Falu 朝真發爐品) | ||
Lists of Deities of the Audiences with the Perfected Ones (Chaozhen Shengwei 朝真聖位品) | ||
Vol. 5 (Yi Collection, Former Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch | Audience Rituals for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Chaoyi 開度朝儀品) |
Vol. 6 (Yi Collection, Latter Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch | Audience Rituals for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Chaoyi 祈禳朝儀品) |
Vol. 7 (Bing 丙 Collection, Upper Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch | Audience Rituals for Prayer and Exorcism |
Vol. 8 (Bing Collection, Lower Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch | Audience Rituals for Prayer and Exorcism |
Flying in Spirit to Have an Audience with the Thearch (Feishen Yedi 飛神謁帝品) | ||
Single Audience Rituals for Deliverance and Salvation, and for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Kaidu Danzhao 祈禳開度單朝品) | ||
Vol. 9 (Bing Collection, Former Volume) | Audience with the Perfected Ones and the Thearch | Texts for Announcing the Talismans (Gaofu 告符品) |
Texts for Urgent Ritual Repentance (Jichan 急懺品) | ||
Rituals for Dismantling the Altar (Santan Yi 散壇儀品) | ||
Opening Invocations and Expressions of Wishes in the Ritual Audience (Chaoxiu Maoyuan 朝修冒願品) | ||
Vol. 10 (Bing Collection, Latter Volume) | Ascending the Altar and Subsequent Recitation of Scriptures (Shengtan Zhuanjing 升壇轉經門) | Rituals of Scripture Recitation for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Zhuanjing 開度轉經品) |
Rituals of Scripture Recitation for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Zhuanjing 祈禳轉經品) | ||
Vol. 11 (Ding 丁 Collection, Upper Volume) | Hymns and Invocations for the Lamp Rituals (Zanzhu Dengyi 讚祝燈儀門) | Lamp Rituals for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Dengyi 開度燈儀品) |
Vol. 12 (Ding Collection, Former Volume) | Hymns and Invocations for the Lamp Rituals | Lamp Rituals for Deliverance and Salvation |
Vol. 13 (Ding Collection, Latter Volume) | Hymns and Invocations for the Lamp Rituals | Lamp Rituals for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Dengyi 祈禳燈儀品) |
Vol. 14 (Ding Collection, Lower Volume) | Hymns and Invocations for the Lamp Rituals | Lamp Rituals for Prayer and Exorcism |
Vol. 15 (Wu 戊 Collection, Upper Volume) | The Summoning, Bathing, and Feeding of Abandoned Souls (Zhaohun Yushi 召魂浴食門) | Rituals for Summoning and Delivering the Deceased (Shewang Zhengji 攝亡拯濟品) |
Summoning the Deceased in the Jade Register Ritual (Yulu Zhaoshe 玉籙召攝品) | ||
Rituals of Repentance in the Presence of the Deceased (Lingqian Chanhui Ke 靈前懺悔科品) | ||
Texts and Gāthās for the Invitation of Banners during the Ritual Audience (Chaoye Qingfan Wen Jiyu 朝謁請旛文偈語) | ||
Vol. 16 (Wu Collection, Lower Volume) | Rebirth through Refinement | Rituals for Distributing Food to Save Souls in Darkness |
Rituals of Conferring Precepts | ||
Interchangeable Texts and Gāthās for Food-Offering and Sublimation | ||
Vol. 17 (Wu Collection, Former Volume) | Rebirth through Refinement | Rituals of Oblatory Refinement |
Rituals of Universal Refinement | ||
Vol. 18 (Wu Collection, Latter Volume) | Rebirth through Refinement | Rituals of Major Refinement |
Vol. 19 (Ji 己 Collection, Upper Volume) | Transmission and Salvation for the Benefit of All (Liuchuan Liji 流傳利濟門) | Rituals of Transmission and Deliverance (Chuandu 傳度品) |
Rituals for the Bestowal of Life-Blessings (Shisheng 施生品) | ||
Vol. 20 (Ji Collection, Latter Volume) | Thanksgiving Offering upon Completion of the Ritual (Licheng Jiaoxie 禮成醮謝門) | Major Offerings for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Zhengjiao yi 開度正醮儀品) |
Rituals of the Three Offerings at Each Altar for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Gemu Sanxian 開度各幕三獻品) | ||
Vol. 21 (Ji Collection, Former Volume) | Thanksgiving Offering upon Completion of the Ritual | Major Offerings for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Zhengjiao Yi 祈禳正醮儀品) |
Rituals of the Three Offerings at Each Altar (Gemu Sanxian 各幕三獻品) | ||
Vol. 22 (Ji Collection, Latter Volume) | Thanksgiving Offering upon Completion of the Ritual | Offerings to the Perfected Ones for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Zhuzhen Jiaoyi 祈禳諸真醮儀品) |
Vol. 23 (Geng 庚 Collection, Upper Volume) | Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar | Methods for Summoning, Making Subservient, and Dispatching Spirit Officials (Zhaoyi Faqian 召役發遣品) |
The Superior Way of Audiences (Chaoxiu Shangdao 朝修上道品) | ||
Templates for Ritual Petitions and Memorials (Zhangbiao 章表品) | ||
Arcane Formulae of the Perfected Ones | ||
Vol. 24 (Geng Collection, Middle Volume) | Fundamental Principles of Ascending the Altar | Interpretation and Commentary on Daoist Rites (Daofa Shiyi 道法釋議品) |
Ritual Sequence for Chanting and Guidance (Zandao Jieci 讚導節次品) | ||
Vol. 25 (Geng Collection, Lower Volume) | The Norms of Transcendent Rituals (Xianyi Fazhi 仙儀法制門) | Diagrams for the Construction of Ritual Altars (Tanmu 壇幕品) |
Diagrams of the Lamp Altars for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Dengtan Tu 開度燈壇圖品) | ||
Diagrams of the Lamp Altars for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Dengtan Tu 祈禳燈壇圖品) | ||
Diagrams of the Seals of Numinous Treasure and Their Ordinances (Lingbao Yinling 靈寶印令品) | ||
Gifts to Be Supplied by Ritual Requestors (Tanxin Jingli 壇信經例品) | ||
Vol. 26 (Geng Collection, Former Volume) | Concordance of the Talismans and Petitions (Heqi Fuzhang 合契符章門) | General-purpose Talismans for Deliverance and Salvation, and for Prayer and Exorcism (Kaidu Qirang Tongyong 開度祈禳通用品) |
Vol. 27 (Geng Collection, Latter Volume) | Concordance of the Talismans and Petitions | Talismans and Seal Scripts for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Fuzhuan 開度符篆品) |
Vol. 28 (Xin 辛 Collection, Upper Volume) | Concordance of the Talismans and Petitions | Secret Seal Scripts for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Mizhuan 開度秘篆品) |
Vol. 29 (Xin Collection, Lower Volume) | Concordance of the Talismans and Petitions | Secret Seal Scripts for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Mizhuan 祈禳秘篆品) |
Vol. 30 (Xin Collection, Former Volume) | Issuance of Talismans and Tablets (Bangao Fujian 頒告符簡門) | Numinous Writs for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Lingwen 開度靈文品) |
Vol. 31 (Xin Collection, Latter Volume) | Issuance of Talismans and Tablets | Numinous Writs for Deliverance and Salvation |
Vol. 32 (Xin Collection, Left Volume) | Issuance of Talismans and Tablets | Numinous Writs for Deliverance and Salvation, and for Prayer and Exorcism (Kaidu qirang Lingwen 開度祈禳靈文品) |
Numinous Writs for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Lingwen 祈禳靈文品) | ||
Vol. 33 (Xin Collection, Right Volume) | Illustrations and Descriptions of the Ritual Banners (Lingfan Baogai 靈旛寶蓋門) | Formats of Talismans for Raising and Erecting the Ritual Banners (Yangli Fanfu 揚立旛符品) |
Formats of Talismans for Ritual Banners on the Altar for the Void Sovereign (Xuhuangtan Fanfu 虛皇壇旛符品) | ||
Formats of Talismans for Ritual Banners Used in Summoning the Deceased (Zhaoshe Fanfu 召攝旛符品) | ||
Formats of Talismans and Spells for Ritual Banners Used in Food-Offering and Sublimation (Zhaoshe Fanfu 斛鍊旛符品) | ||
Formats of Talismans and Spells for Ritual Banners (Zhufan Fuzhou 諸旛符咒品) | ||
Vol. 34 (Ren 壬 Collection, Upper Volume) | Standards for Writing Models (Wenjian Licheng 文檢立成門) | Writing Models for the Ritual of Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu 開度品) |
Vol. 35 (Ren Collection, Lower Volume) | Standards for Writing Models | Writing Models for the Ritual of Deliverance and Salvation |
Texts of the Ritual Placards (Bangyu 榜語品) | ||
Texts of the Ritual Memorials (Cishu 詞疏品) | ||
Vol. 36 (Ren Collection, Former Volume) | Standards for Writing Models | Writing Models for the Ritual of Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang 祈禳品) |
Vol. 37 (Ren Collection, Latter Volume) | Standards for Writing Models | Writing Models for the Ritual of Prayer and Exorcism |
Texts of the Ritual Memorials | ||
Vol. 38 (Gui 癸 Collection, Upper Volume) | Format and Structure of Petitions (Zhangfa Geshi 章法格式門) | Petitions for Deliverance and Salvation (Kaidu Zhang 開度章品) |
Petitions for Prayer and Exorcism (Qirang Zhang 祈禳章品) | ||
Prescribed Formats for Memorials and Notifications (Biaojian Guizhi 表箋規制門) | Templates of Red Memorials (Zhubiao 朱表品) | |
Templates of Major Memorials for Deliverance and Salvation, and for Prayer and Exorcism (Kaidu Qirang Zhengbiao 開度祈禳正表品) | ||
Templates of Scattered Memorials for Deliverance and Salvation, and for Prayer and Exorcism (Kaidu Qirang Sanbiao 開度祈禳散表品) | ||
Vol. 39 (Gui Collection, Middle Volume) | List of the Holy and Perfected Ones with Ritual Emplacements (Shengzhen Banwei 聖真班位門) | |
Vol. 40 (Gui Collection, Lower Volume) | List of the Holy and Perfected Ones with Ritual Emplacements | |
Requisite Knowledge for the Retreats and Offerings (Zhaijiao Xuzhi 齋醮須知門) |
Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating | Golden Writings on the Great Achievement | |
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Inner Sublimation | (The ritual master) sits upright in the oratory, clears the heart and quiets the mind, regulates the breath until it is steady, and remains in deep stillness for an extended time. Only then does one visualize true qi residing in the Lower Cinnabar Field (xia dantian 下丹田), appearing like a grand vermilion jade pellet, revolving nine times alternately to the left and right, with exceptional clarity. After a long time, one senses that the Jade Pond (yuchi 玉池) is filled with water—an external sign indicating that the Kidney Water (shenshui 腎水) has ascended. The true fire pellet then begins its ascent to the Heart Bureau of the Crimson Palace (jianggong xinfu 絳宮心府), also known as the Upper Palace of the South Brightness (nanchang shanggong 南昌上宫) and the Fire Palace on the Vermilion Mound. From the Court of Flowing Fire, flames of flowing gold burst forth, and the ritual master visualizes his entire body being consumed by these flames. In time, the body is refined into the form of an infant seated upright within the Crimson Palace, and his physical form is restored to its original, complete state. The infant then gradually ascends the Twelve-story Building (shi’er ceng lou 十二層樓) to reach the Jade Chamber of the Gold Portal—the Muddy Pellet Palace (niwan gong 泥丸宮) at the crown of the head. There, the infant transforms into the sacred image of a Celestial Worthy, seated solemnly in the palace, holding a jade bowl in the left hand and a branch of azure-green in the right. This is the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering, whose image must be visualized with utmost clarity. 入室端坐,澄心靜慮,息調氣定,寂然良久,方存我下丹田真氣如火,如大紅玉丸,左右九轉,甚是分明。良久,自覺玉池水滿,即腎水上升之外候也。其真火一丸,始升上絳宮心府,號曰南昌上宮,亦號曰朱陵火府。流火之庭即發炎炎流金之火,存想己身盡為火所焚。良久,鍊形如嬰兒狀,端坐絳宮中,己身復完如故。嬰兒漸登十二層樓,上金闕玉房之中,乃頂門泥丸宮。嬰兒即化成天尊聖像,端坐宮中,左手執碧玉盂,右手執空青枝,號曰太一救苦天尊,極要分明。 (DZ 548, 1. 1b–2b) | The Master in the Beyond (xuanshi 玄師) said: “(The grand master) sits upright in the oratory, clears the heart and quiets the mind, regulates the breath until it is steady, and remains in deep stillness for an extended time. Only then does one visualize true qi residing in the Lower Cinnabar Field, appearing as large as a vermilion jade pellet, revolving nine times alternately to the left and right, with exceptional clarity. After a long time, one senses that the Jade Pond is filled with water—an external sign indicating that the Kidney Water has ascended. The true fire pellet then begins its ascent to the Crimson Palace, also known as the Upper Palace of the South Brightness and the Fire Palace on the Vermilion Mound. From the Court of Flowing Fire, flames of flowing gold burst forth, and the ritual master visualizes his entire body being consumed by these flames. In time, the body is refined into the form of an infant seated upright in the Crimson Palace, and his physical form is restored to its original, complete state. The infant then gradually ascends the Twelve-story Building to reach the Jade Chamber of the Gold Portal—the Muddy Pellet Palace at the crown of the head. There, the infant transforms into the sacred image of a Celestial Worthy, seated solemnly in the palace, holding a jade bowl in the left hand and a branch of azure-green in the right. This is the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering, whose image must be visualized with utmost clarity.” 玄師曰:入室端坐,澄心靜慮,息調氣定,寂然良久,方存我下丹田真氣如火,大如紅玉丸,左右九轉,甚是分明。良久,自覺玉池水滿,即腎水上升之外候也。其真火一丸,始升上絳宮,號曰南昌上宮,亦曰朱陵火府。流火之庭即發炎炎流金之火。存想己身盡為火所焚。良久,鍊形如嬰兒狀,端坐絳宮,己身復完如故。嬰兒漸登十二層樓,上金闕玉房之中,乃頂門泥丸宮。嬰兒即化成天尊聖象,端坐宮中,左手執碧玉盂,右手執空青枝,號曰太一救苦天尊,極要分明。 (ZW 698, 23. 57a–57b) |
Untying the Grievances | To stir the mind and give rise to thoughts is to generate evil karma (e’ye 惡業), which inevitably leads to retribution through resentment and enmity; to extinguish the mind and forget external things is to return to the root of the Dao, thereby universally receiving the profound grace of resolution and dissolution. If I am attached, others are likewise attached; if I let go, others too let go. When both sides are liberated from attachment to external things, one naturally returns to the realm of non-action (wuwei 無為). All resentment resolves, and karmic knots dissolve on their own without the need for deliberate intervention. 興心發念,是為惡業,則有冤讎之報對;泯心忘物,則為道本,普受解釋之深恩。我執彼亦執,我忘彼亦忘。兩邊不著於物,自然還於無為之天,冤結不待解釋而自解釋。 (DZ 548, 3. 10a) | The essential principle of resolving resentment and dissolving karmic knots is as follows: To stir the mind and give rise to thoughts is to generate evil karma, which inevitably leads to retribution through resentment and enmity; to extinguish the mind and forget external things is to return to the root of the Dao, thereby universally receiving the profound grace of resolution and dissolution. If I am attached, others are likewise attached; if I let go, others too let go. When both sides are liberated from attachment to external things, one naturally returns to the realm of non-action. All resentment resolves, and karmic knots dissolve on their own without the need for deliberate intervention. 解冤釋結之旨曰:興心發念,是為惡業,則有冤讎之執對;泯心忘物,則為道本,普受解釋之深恩。我執彼亦執,我忘彼亦忘。兩邊不着於物,自然還於無為之天,冤結不待解釋而自解釋。 (ZW 698, 23. 60b–61a) |
the Celestial Physician | Sentient beings die either from illness or from injuries caused by punishment or violence. As a result, the yin hun 魂 are all contorted, twisted, crippled, emaciated, and covered in pus and blood, with their forms incomplete and disfigured. Without receiving the true qi of the mutual generation cycle of the Five Phases (wuxing 五行), how could their jing 精, shen 神, hun, po 魄, and yi 意 be restored? By partaking of my offerings and undergoing refinement through my rites, they obtain this true qi, which allows their bodily forms to be fully restored in an instant… This true qi begins with jin 金 and ends with tu 土. It is grounded in two cosmological principles: that Heaven-One gives birth to water (tianyi sheng shui 天一生水), and that qian 乾 symbolizes both heaven and jin. Thus, the process begins with jin and follows with shui 水: jin generates shui, shui generates mu 木, mu generates huo 火, and huo generates tu. With the arrival at tu, the qi of the mutual generation cycle of the Five Phases is brought to completion. Tu, in turn, generates jin, forming an endless cycle. All beings are born from tu and ultimately return to it. Thus, the cycle concludes with tu. As Zhuangzi 莊子 (ca. 369 BCE–ca. 286 BCE) said: “Human life is the aggregation of qi. When it gathers, there is life; when it disperses, there is death.” Thus, it is said that all things between Heaven and Earth are composed of qi. This accords with what is recorded in medical texts as well. From this, we understand that the generation of all things depends on qi, and that qi governs the entire human body. Though the five breaths—xi 呬, chui 吹, xu 噓, he 呵, and hu 呼—are each associated with one of the five viscera, they are all manifestations of qi. Among them, the lungs regulate and inhale the qi of the entire body. The sequence begins with xi, generating the po for the souls of the deceased; chui generates their jing; xu generates their hun; he generates their shen; and hu generates their yi. This is the method by which the physical form is gradually restored. Although gods and spirits are said to possess heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys in name, they do not truly have these physical organs. Therefore, to restore their complete forms, we must draw upon the qi of our own five viscera to generate their jing, shen, hun, po, and yi. Gods and spirits are but transformations of jing, shen, hun, po, and yi—how could they possess actual hearts, livers, spleens, lungs, or kidneys? 衆生之死,非是病亡,則遭刑傷,故陰魂皆喎邪攣躄、枯瘦膿血、形骸不具者,非得五行相生真氣,豈能生彼精神魂魄意?享我祭,受我鍊,以得此五行相生真氣,衆魂形相,一時具足。……此之五行相生真氣,始乎金,終乎土。取天一生水之義,乾為天、乾為金之義。故始之於金,繼之以水,金生水,水生木,木生火,火生土,至土而五行相生之氣備矣。土復生金,循環無端。萬物始生於土,終歸於土,故終之以土。莊子曰:“人之生,氣之聚也。聚則為生,散則為死。”故曰通天下一氣耳。醫書所說亦然。以此知萬物之生,以氣為一身之主。雖呬吹噓呵呼,各屬五臟不同,然五者皆氣也。管攝我一身之氣者,肺也。始於呬以生彼之魄,吹以生彼之精,噓以生彼之魂,呵以生彼之神,呼以生彼之意,此完形次第之道也。鬼神雖有心肝脾肺腎之名,初無心肝脾肺腎之實。今欲彼之完形者,特藉我心肝脾肺腎之氣,以生彼之精神魂魄意也。鬼神者,精神魂魄意之變化也,豈真有心肝脾肺腎可生哉? (DZ 548, 2. 22a–23b) | Sentient beings do not die solely from illness; some also die from injuries inflicted by punishment or violence. As a result, the yin hun are all contorted, twisted, crippled, emaciated, and covered in pus and blood, with their forms incomplete and disfigured. Without receiving the true qi of the mutual generation cycle of the Five Phases, how could their jing, shen, hun, po, and yi be restored? By partaking in my offerings and undergoing refinement through my rites, they obtain this true qi, which allows their bodily forms to be fully restored in an instant. The true qi begins with jin and ends with tu. It is grounded in two cosmological principles: that Heaven-One gives birth to water, and that qian symbolizes both heaven and jin. Thus, the process begins with jin and follows with shui: jin generates shui, shui generates mu, mu generates huo, and huo generates tu. With the arrival at tu, the qi of the mutual generation cycle of the Five Phases is brought to completion. All beings are born from tu and ultimately return to it. Thus, the cycle concludes with tu. As Zhuangzi said: “Human life is the aggregation of qi. When it gathers, there is life; when it disperses, there is death.” Thus, it is said that all things between Heaven and Earth are composed of qi. From this, we understand that the generation of all things depends on qi, and that qi governs the entire human body. Though the five breaths—xi, chui, xu, he, and hu—are each associated with one of the five viscera, they are all manifestations of qi. Among them, the lungs regulate and inhale the qi of the entire body. The sequence begins with xi, generating the po for the souls of the deceased; chui generates their jing; xu generates their hun; he generates their shen; and hu generates their yi. This is the method by which the physical form is gradually restored. Although gods and spirits are said to possess heart, liver, spleen, lungs, and kidneys in name, they do not truly have these physical organs. Therefore, to restore their complete forms, we must draw upon the qi of our own five viscera to generate their jing, shen, hun, po, and yi. Gods and spirits are but transformations of jing, shen, hun, po, and yi—how could they possess hearts, livers, spleens, lungs, or kidneys? Now, following the ritual protocols, I integrate both internal and external practices, making the process even more exquisite. 衆生之死,非獨病死,內有刑傷,故陰魂皆喎邪攣躄、枯搜膿血、形骸不具者,非得五行相生真氣,豈能生彼精神魂魄意?享我祭,受我鍊,以得此五行相生真氣,衆魂形相,一時具足。五行相生真氣者,始乎金,終乎土。取天一生水之義,乾為天、金之義,故始之於金,繼之以水,金生水,水生木,木生火,火生土,至土而五行相生之氣備矣。萬物始生於土,終歸於土,故終之以土。莊子曰:“人之生,氣之聚也。聚則為生,散則為死。”故曰通天下一氣耳。以此知萬物之生以氣,為一身之主。雖呬吹噓呵呼,各屬五臟不同,然五者皆氣也。管攝我一身之氣者,肺也。始於呬以生彼之魄,吹以生彼之精,噓以生彼之魂,呵以生彼之神,呼以生彼之意,此完形次第之道也。鬼神雖有心肝脾肺腎之名,初無心肝脾肺腎之實。今欲彼之完形者,特藉我心肝脾肺腎之氣,以生彼精神魂魄意也。鬼神者,精神魂魄意之變化也,豈其有心肝脾肺腎之可生哉?今依科格,內功外合,更加尤妙。 (ZW 698, 23. 59b–60a) |
Those who do not realize their own true power of Creation and Transformation mistakenly believe that their abilities are limited and that they must rely on divine assistance from Heaven. However, such a view is exceedingly narrow and misguided. Little do they know that the mutual generation of the Five Phases qi within my five viscera enables the souls of the deceased to heal themselves without recourse to the Celestial Physicians; that the purity of my single-minded clarity allows them to be cleansed without the need for purification rites; and that a single thought of liberation on my part permits their rebirth without the intervention of the Inspector of Rebirth (jiansheng 監生). Since my heart is vast and free from demonic thoughts, what need is there for celestial officers to summon and escort the souls of the deceased? In truth, it all comes down to the strength and insight of the practitioner. In grand Retreats and Offerings, although the ritual procedures are numerous and intricate, they ultimately serve as external manifestations to signify the inner practices. If the power of Creation and Transformation truly resided in Heaven, then Heaven would deliver the souls of the deceased directly. Why, then, would it leave such a method in the mortal world, waiting for humans to perform the rites of sacrificing to and sublimating the souls of the deceased so that they might at last attain deliverance? This is the role of the human who stands between Heaven and Earth, accomplishing what even Heaven and Earth themselves cannot reach. The vastness of Heaven and Earth is upheld through me, and the multitude of beings is sustained by my actions. 不明自己真造化,乃謂我法力微薄,必假上天神明為之用,可謂狹劣之至。殊不知我之五臟五行之氣相生,則彼之不待天醫而自醫;我之一心清淨,則彼不待解穢而自解;我之一念解脫,則彼不待監生而自受生。我心廣大,又無魔念,亦何必將吏攝召護送之?只看行持者力量見識爾。如大齋醮中,繁文頗多,亦不過以外像而表內事。使造化果在於上天,則上天自濟拔之,又何必遺此法於下土,直待世人為之祭鍊,而幽冥始得濟拔?此人之所以中立乎兩間,而濟天地不及之功也。天地之大,我之所維;萬物之衆,我之所持。 (DZ 548, 3. 10a–10b) | As for the Celestial Physicians, some believe that it is precisely because their own abilities are limited and they do not realize their true power of Creation and Transformation that they must rely on them for assistance. However, such a view is exceedingly narrow and misguided. In truth, it all comes down to the strength and insight of the practitioner. In grand Retreats and Offerings, although the ritual procedures are numerous and intricate, they ultimately serve as external manifestations to signify the inner practices. The vastness of Heaven and Earth is upheld through me, and the multitude of beings is sustained by my actions. 天醫者,蓋因我法力微薄,不明自己真造化,必假天醫而為用,可謂狹劣之至。殊不知我之五臟五行之氣相生,則彼不待天醫而醫;我之一心清淨,則彼不待解穢而解;我之一念解脫,則彼不待監生而自受生。只看行持者力量見識爾。如大齋醮,繁文頗多,亦不過以外像而表內事矣。天地之待〔大〕,我之所維;萬物之衆,我之所持。 (ZW 698, 23. 60b) | |
Bathing | Next, the ritual master visualizes the Danyang talisman. The water in the pool transforms into a vast and boundless expanse, summoning all the souls of the deceased to receive the generative qi of the Five Phases. Simultaneously, they attain bodily completion and undergo purification through bathing. The ritual master silently recites the Great Danyang Spell… Upon completing the recitation, the ritual master visualizes the multitude of souls emerging from their ablutions with their forms fully restored. All human souls—males to the left, females to the right—are dressed in celestial garments, while all birds and beasts are purified and arranged according to their respective kinds. 次想丹陽符,水池化成無邊汪洋大水,普召一切幽魂,各得五行生氣,同時完形,同時沐浴。默念丹陽大咒。……右默咒畢,存見衆魂完形出浴。凡是人類,男左女右,皆着仙衣;凡是禽獸,悉皆潔淨,各以類分。 (DZ 548, 1. 6a–7a) | The Daoist assembly recites the Great Danyang Bathing Spell… Next, within the pool, the water transforms into a vast and boundless expanse. The souls of the deceased bathe within it, each receiving the true qi of the Five Phases, and in an instant, their forms are fully restored. 道衆誦丹陽沐浴大咒。……次水池內化成無邊汪洋大水,亡魂沐浴,各得五行真氣,一時完形。 (ZW 698, 23. 67a) |
Offering Food | The ritual master then visualizes the Celestial Worthy of the Supreme One appearing within his own Muddy Pellet Palace, holding a jade bowl in his left hand and a branch of azure-green in his right. In silent and devout supplication, the ritual master petitions the Celestial Worthy of the Supreme One to infuse this purified water with the nectar of sweet dew. The ritual master silently recites the incantation “The Celestial Worthy of the Supreme One bestows sweet dew” seven times. Thereupon, the Celestial Worthy of the Supreme One is seen within the empty and mysterious void, his sacred image immense and distinctly manifest. He sprinkles sweet dew from his right hand, pouring it into the water bowl. The purified water is thus transmuted into sweet dew. In a state of meditative stillness, the ritual master visualizes sprinkling the ritual food with sweet dew-infused water, whereupon it instantly becomes fragrant, moist, and richly flavorful. The ritual master silently recites the Middle Chapter of the Numinous Writings three times, transforming the ritual food into an immeasurable abundance that permeates the ten directions. The multitude of souls are then seen dwelling in a boundless, pure white world, joyfully partaking of the transformed offerings in abundance. Moreover, the sacred water is distributed everywhere, allowing all the souls of the deceased to drink the sweet dew and be fully nourished. After a brief pause to allow the souls to partake of food and drink freely, the ritual master patiently awaits the completion of their enjoyment. 即想兆泥丸宮中,太一天尊左手執碧玉盂,右手執空青枝,密默懇奏,乞降甘露漿入此清淨水,默咒曰太一天尊降甘露七遍。遂見太一天尊在空玄中,聖像極大,了了分明,右手灑甘露,下注水盂中,淨水變成甘露,即於靜定中,兆以甘露水灑法食上,即想法食頓然香潤甘美,默念《靈書中篇》三遍,變食廣大無邊,充滿十方,見衆魂盡在無邊白淨世界中,皆得餐享斛食。又遍賜神水,普及一切幽魂,盡飲甘露,悉得飽滿。少待片時,容其恣情飲食,伺畢。 (DZ 548, 1. 7a–7b) | The ritual master offers incense, burns talismans, sprinkles purified water, ascends the ritual seat, and silently engages in Inner Sublimation practice. Thereupon, he beholds the Heavenly Worthy of the Supreme Oneness Who Delivers from Suffering, the Heavenly Worthy of the Ten Directions Who Delivers from Suffering, and innumerable divine beings, all appearing within the empty and mysterious void, their sacred images immense and distinctly manifest. The deity sprinkles sweet dew everywhere, pouring it into the water bowl. The purified water is thus transmuted into sweet dew. In a state of meditative stillness, the ritual master visualizes sprinkling the ritual food with sweet dew-infused water, whereupon it instantly becomes fragrant, moist, and richly flavorful. The ritual master silently recites the secret spells, transforming the ritual food into an immeasurable abundance that permeates the ten directions. The multitude of souls are then seen dwelling in a boundless, pure white world, joyfully partaking of the transformed offerings in abundance. Moreover, the water is distributed everywhere, allowing all the souls of the deceased to drink the sweet dew and be fully nourished. After a brief pause to allow full enjoyment, the ritual master proclaims the Refuges and Precepts, thus concluding the inner practice. Thereafter, the ritual master adapted the teachings to suit the local customs and expounded them in accordance with the ritual protocols. 師上香、焚符、灑淨、升座,默行於內鍊法。遂見太一救苦天尊、十方救苦天尊、無鞅數衆,在空玄之中,聖像極大,了了分明。遍灑甘露,下注水盂中,淨水變成甘露。即於靜定中,兆以甘露水灑法食。即想法食頓然香潤甘美。默念秘咒,變食廣大無邊,充滿十方世界。見衆魂盡在無邊白淨世界,皆得餐享斛食。又遍灑水,普及一切幽魂,盡飲甘露,悉得飽滿。少待片時,聽宣皈戒,內事畢矣。然後隨方設教,依科宣演。 (ZW 698, 23. 57b) |
Water Refinement | First, the ritual master visualizes a single point of extreme brightness between the two kidneys. In an instant, it transforms into a great moon-like disc. Gazing upon it intently for a long while, the ritual master induces the union of water and fire (shuihuo jiaogou 水火交媾) within his body, giving rise to the water of the Jade Pool. The moon-like disc eventually ascends to the crown of the head… When the moon-like disc is positioned between the Eight Stars of the Eastern Well (dongjing baxing 東井八星), the ritual master begins to employ the yellow essence water (huanghua shui 黃華水). At this moment, he visualizes the moon-like disc stationed between the Eight Stars of the Eastern Well. The spinal water (jiaji shui 夾脊水) naturally rises like the Celestial River (tianhe 天河), flowing upward to penetrate the Eight Stars of the Eastern Well located at the crown of the head. The light of the moon-like disc illuminates the source of the Celestial River at the crown, stirring forth a fluid of yellow essence water, which then gently moistens the upper palate. After a short while, the ritual master perceives the true water flowing from the crown onto the tongue, then descending further to fill the mouth with a sweetness that is moist, fragrant, and exquisite—none other than his own true yellow essence water. He then visualizes the water transforming into a vast expanse of yellow essence water that fills the entire space before him, boundless and without limit. The souls of the deceased dwell within this water, refining their essence and nourishing their forms. Over time, they emerge from this sublimation: their appearances are radiant and vibrant, and their inner and outer selves are pure and luminous. 先想兩腎中間有一點極明,須臾如大月輪,注視良久,水火交媾,玉池水生,其月輪竟升頂上,……其月正在東井八星之間,始作用黃華水,當存月正在東井八星間,自然夾脊水如天河升貫頂中東井之間,其月光照耀於頂中天河之源,激成黃色水華之水,漸漸浸潤上腭。須臾,覺真水自頂中流於舌上而下,滿口甘潤香美,是自己黃華真水也。即見滿前化成汗漫黃色水華之水,其水自然無邊無際,一切幽魂,皆在其中,鍊育精髓,膏潤顏色。良久出鍊,幽魂形貌精采,表裏瑩潔。 (DZ 548, 1. 7b–8a) | The Daoist congregation chants the Scripture of Relieves Suffering slowly and reverently. The ritual master visualizes a single point of extreme brightness between the two kidneys. In an instant, it transforms into a great moon-like disc. The ritual master gazes upon it intently for a long while, during which the union of water and fire takes place within his body, giving rise to the water of the Jade Pool. The moon-like disc then ascends to the crown of the head… When the moon-like disc is positioned between the Eight Stars of the Eastern Well, the kidney water naturally rises like the Celestial River, flowing upward to permeate the Eight Stars of the Eastern Well located at the crown of the head. The light of the moon-like disc illuminates the source of the Celestial River at the crown, stirring forth a fluid of yellow jade essence water, which then moistens the upper palate. After a short while, the true water flows from the crown onto the tongue, then descends further to fill the mouth with a sweetness that is moist, fragrant, and exquisite—none other than his own true yellow essence water. He then visualizes the water transforming into a vast expanse of yellow jade essence water. Countless rays of radiant light, stretching boundlessly and without limit. The souls of the deceased dwell within this water, refining their essence and nourishing their forms. Over time, their appearances are radiant and vibrant, and their inner and outer selves are pure and luminous. 道衆徐徐念《救苦經》。師存兩腎中間有一點極明,須臾大如月輪,注視良久,水火交媾,玉池水生,其月輪上升頂上,……其月正在東井八星之間,自然腎水如天河升貫頂中東井之間,月光照耀於頂中天河之源,激成黃色玉華之水,浸潤上顎,須臾,真水自頂中流於舌上而下,滿口甘潤香味,此乃是自己黃華真水也。即見化成汗漫黃色玉華之水,萬道霞光,無邊無際,一切幽魂,皆在其中,鍊育精髓,膏潤顏色。良久,形貌精彩,表裏瑩潔。 (ZW 698, 23. 68a) |
Fire Refinement | The ritual master visualizes and imagines a single point of true qi between the two kidneys. In an instant, it transforms into a great, red, sun-like disc. Gazing upon it intently for a long while, the ritual master induces the union of water and fire within his body, causing the water of the Jade Pool to rise. The sun-like disc eventually ascends to the Crimson Palace, where it bursts forth dazzling flames of flowing gold. The ritual master sees the flying flames transform into a blazing fire, filling the sky with a fiery expanse. The souls of the deceased joyfully enter the fire for refinement and sublimation, each one encircled by flames. When the refinement is complete, the ritual master turns his gaze inward for inner vision, and the fire naturally fades from view. At this point, the souls of the deceased entirely forget the distinction of their former forms. One by one, they transform into infants, their bodies radiant with light. All are clothed in celestial garments and arrayed to the left and right, prepared to receive the Three Refuges and the Nine Precepts. 存想兩腎中間一點真氣,須臾如大紅日輪,注視良久,水火交媾,玉池水升,其日輪竟升於絳宮,發燦爛流金之火,即見飛燄化成大火,遍空炎炎,一切幽魂,皆喜悅入火冶鍊,一一火光遶身,至受鍊畢,回目向下內觀,其火自然不見,至此竟忘其[為異]類之形。一一衆魂,皆化為嬰兒,身有[光明],皆着仙衣,羅列左右,聽受三皈九戒。 (DZ 548, 1. 8b) | The ritual master visualizes and imagines a single point of true qi between the two kidneys. In an instant, it transforms into a great, red, sun-like disc. Gazing upon it intently for a long while, the ritual master induces the union of water and fire within his body, causing the water of the Jade Pool to rise. The sun-like disc eventually ascends to the Crimson Palace, where it bursts forth dazzling flames of flowing gold. The ritual master sees the flying flames transform into a blazing fire, filling the sky with a fiery expanse. The souls of the deceased joyfully enter the Fire Swamp (huozhao 火沼) for refinement and sublimation, each one encircled by flames. When the refinement is complete, the ritual master turns his gaze inward for inner vision, and the fire naturally fades from view. At this point, the souls of the deceased entirely forget the distinction of their former forms. One by one, they transform into infants, their bodies radiant with light. All are clothed in celestial garments and arrayed to the left and right, prepared to receive the Three Refuges and the Nine Precepts. 存想兩腎中間一點真氣,須臾如大紅日輪,注視良久,水火交媾,玉池水升,其日輪竟升於絳宮,發燦爛流金之火,即見飛焰化成大火,變〔遍〕空炎炎,一切幽魂,皆喜悅入火沼鍊,一一火光遶身,至受鍊畢,回目向下內觀,其火自然不見,至此竟忘其為異類之形。一一衆魂,皆化為嬰兒,身有光明,皆着仙衣,羅列左右,聽受三皈九戒。 (ZW 698, 23. 70a) |
1 | In the study of Daoist rituals, the terms “Retreats,” “Offerings,” and “Salvation through Refinement” are often mentioned together. Therefore, it is necessary to briefly clarify the relationships among these three concepts. Generally speaking, a large-scale Daoist ritual assembly typically comprises three parts: Retreats, Offerings, and Salvation through Refinement. Of these, Retreats and Offerings primarily involve sacrifices to the gods for blessings and the averting of disasters, while Salvation through Refinement aims to rescue the souls of the deceased from hell, guide them to ascend to heaven, and ultimately transform them into transcendent beings. In other words, Salvation through Refinement does not exist as an independent ritual but rather is integrated with Retreats and Offerings to form a complete Daoist ritual event. This type of comprehensive ritual—comprising Retreats, Offerings, and Salvation through Refinement—is highly developed in Daoism, with the Yellow Register Retreat (huanglu zhai 黃籙齋) serving as its most representative example. |
2 | In ancient Daoist texts, external ritual performances are typically referred to as “yi” (儀), while their counterpart, internal cultivation, is designated as “fa” (法). These two terms are derived from two key texts discussed in this paper: Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. In the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating, Zheng Sixiao introduced and elaborated on the concepts of “fa” and “yi.” According to Zheng, “fa” refers to the “inner method,” a simplified procedure for oblatory refinement that he designed after reviewing various manuals from different traditions of refinement rituals. This approach places significant emphasis on subjective efficacy, envisioning the primary processes as occurring within the practitioner’s own body (Capitanio 2023, pp. 115–16). By contrast, Zheng Sixiao refers to the term “yi” as “keyi” (科儀), with the Yellow Register Retreat being a representative example. Originally, “ke” and “yi” were two separate concepts. In early Daoist texts, “ke” (科) referred to various teachings of Daoism. Since the Tang and Song dynasties, it has mainly referred to Daoist Retreats and Offerings. Meanwhile, the term “yi” signifies a distinct set of ritual norms and ceremonial standards within Daoism. Starting from approximately the Song Dynasty, the combined term “keyi” began to be collectively referred to as Daoist liturgy (Lu and Wang 2009, pp. 3–5). In the context of Zheng Sixiao, “keyi” does not encompass all Daoist rituals but specifically refers to Retreats and Offerings that do not involve internal practices. These Retreats and Offerings evidently represent a relatively traditional form of Daoist practice. In certain religious traditions, participants internalize ritual actions into their mind and spirit (Grimes 2013, p. 82). From this perspective, Zheng Sixiao’s Oblatory Refinement is undoubtedly a ritual act. However, in the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating, Zheng Sixiao consistently refers to his own designed Oblatory Refinement as “fa” to emphasize its superiority, distinguishing and contrasting it with the traditional liturgy, which he terms as “yi.” In the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, Zhou Side similarly divides Salvation through Refinement into two parts: “yi” and “fa.” The term “yi” refers to the detailed procedures involved in various Salvation through Refinement rituals, including physical movements, chanting, and recitations. Its content does not significantly differ from that of traditional Daoist Retreats and Offerings texts. While “fa” refers to the inner methods applied during certain stages of the Salvation through Refinement rituals, it is particularly noteworthy that Zhou Side, when discussing the execution of internal practices, not only reminds readers that these specifically pertain to internal practices rather than “keyi” but also frequently emphasizes that after performing these internal practices, one should proceed according to the “ke.” From this, it becomes evident that what Zhou Side referred to as “yi” includes all the performative actions within traditional Daoist Retreats and Offerings. In this sense, it corresponds to the internal Salvation through Refinement proposed by Zheng Sixiao, which is called the “inner method” in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. Accordingly, this article preserves both terms to remain faithful to the original texts. |
3 | In the early stages of Daoist studies, scholars such as Yoshioka Yoshitoyo 吉岡義豐 (Yoshioka 1959, pp. 391–409), Matsumoto Koichi 松本浩一 (Matsumoto 1983a, pp. 191–237; 1983b, pp. 169–94; 2006, pp. 136–245), Judith Boltz 鮑菊隱 (Boltz 1983, pp. 487–511), and Liu Ts’un Yan 柳存仁 (T. Y. Liu 1991, pp. 771–74) touched upon the topic of Salvation through Refinement. However, their discussions tended to be fragmented and unsystematic. Chen Yaoting 陳耀庭 (Y. Chen 2015, pp. 133–45) authored the first dedicated study on Salvation through Refinement rituals. He traced their origins and main regions of practice, analyzed the key elements of major rituals, compared various methods of Salvation through Refinement, and examined the factors behind their widespread popularity, thus paving the way for future research on this topic. Zhang Zehong 張澤洪 (Z. Zhang 1999, pp. 173–88; 2012, pp. 171–80) outlined the procedures involved in the Feeding of the Hungry Ghosts and Salvation through Refinement rituals and provided a more detailed analysis of the meaning, methods of operation, and practical applications of sublimation through water and fire. Shi Xiaojun 史孝君 (X. Shi 2004, pp. 26–32) linked the content and ideas of ancient Salvation through Refinement rituals with contemporary practices of Salvation through Refinement. Scholars such as Lai Chi Tim 黎志添 (Lai 2010, pp. 117–41; Lai 2013, pp. 277–97), Yang Hsiu Chuan 楊秀娟 (H. C. Yang 2022, pp. 165–211; 2023, pp. 131–83), and Gao Lijuan 高麗娟 (Gao 2023, pp. 45–54) have focused on the texts of Salvation through Refinement rituals that are still in use today. Zhu Yiwen 祝逸雯 (Zhu 2013) conducted a detailed comparison of Salvation through Refinement rituals from different Daoist traditions based on Song and Yuan dynasty texts included in the Daoist Canon of the Zhengtong Reign Period. Although Zhu’s research methods remain within the traditional scope of textual analysis and philology, her work, being the first comprehensive study on Salvation through Refinement rituals with a focus on a certain era, still holds considerable reference value. Chen Wenlong 陳文龍 (W. Chen 2015, pp. 275–321) analyzed the Salvation through Refinement rituals included in Wang Qizhen’s Great Rites of the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity in terms of subject, object, and content. Liu Tao 劉陶 (T. Liu 2023) focused on the Salvation through Refinement rituals of the Song Dynasty, with a research scope and methods similar to those of Zhu Yiwen (Zhu 2013), but with more detailed textual analysis and examination. Before the formation of Salvation through Refinement rituals, the concept of Salvation through Refinement already existed. |
4 | Vincent Goossaert 高萬桑 (Goossaert 2007) classified various forms of Buddhist and Daoist soul-saving rituals and, through comparative analysis, elucidated their core features and cross-traditional interactions. He further examined the historical background, performance methods, and ritual structure of Daoist Salvation through Refinement, with particular emphasis on the origins and transmission of the extant ritual known as Offering of [Blessed] Food and Alchemical Salvation with the Iron Bottle of Patriarch Sa (sazu tieguan liandu shishi 薩祖鐵罐煉度施食). Yuan Jin 袁瑾 (Yuan 2013) conducted a comparative study of two long-standing and still widely practiced salvation rituals—the Buddhist Yogacara Ulka-mukha and the Daoist Offering of [Blessed] Food with the Iron Bottle—with particular attention paid to their similarities and differences in ritual music. Tam Wai Lun 譚偉倫 (Tam 2016, pp. 65–105) examined Buddhist and Daoist rites for the souls of the deceased in northwestern Jiangxi 江西, arguing that since the Song dynasty, the two traditions have gradually converged into a shared ritual framework. |
5 | Scholars such as Chang Chao Jan 張超然 (Chang 2011, pp. 29–62), Liu Yi 劉屹 (Y. Liu 2012, pp. 225–47), Hsieh Shih Wei 謝世維 (Hsieh 2012a, pp. 739–77), and Shi Qingsheng 施秦生 (Q. Shi 2023, pp. 128–49) have all examined the process of change in Daoist Salvation through Refinement concepts during the Six Dynasties period (222–589). |
6 | The Golden Writings on the Great Achievement is a comprehensive compilation of the Retreats and Offerings of the Orthodox Oneness Sect of the time. It encompasses rites for safeguarding the state, protecting the people, averting disasters, and delivering both the living and the dead from their afflictions. The text records institutional regulations for altar construction, the performance of Retreats and Offerings, and various liturgical procedures. These include metrical hymns and lauds, talismanic inscriptions for ritual documents, esoteric oral formulas for incantations, and methods of Pacing the Mainstay and the Dipper (bugang tadou 步罡踏斗). It also features diagrams of ritual implements, such as altar layouts, talismans, lamp charts, and other esoteric instruments. A full section-by-section catalog of the text appears in Appendix A. |
7 | Ding Huang 丁煌 (Ding 1989, pp. 221–54; 2009, pp. 246–80) was among the earliest scholars to focus on the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. He meticulously documented the versions and holdings of the Ming Xuande 宣德 eighth year (1433) edition housed in the National Central Library in Taipei 臺北 and explored its compilation background and origins. He also examined the life, rituals, writings, and thought of its compiler, Zhou Side, although his research was not directly based on the text of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement itself. Subsequently, scholarly attention toward the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement increased, among both Chinese and international researchers, who primarily followed two research paths: textual studies and fieldwork. In terms of textual research, Zhang Zehong (Z. Zhang 1998, pp. 26–31+11; 2006, pp. 18–22; 2012, pp. 39–40; Qing and Zhan 2009, pp. 398–407) introduced the structure of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement and summarized the characteristics of the rituals for Food Distribution and Salvation through Refinement described within. Liang Dehua 梁德華 (Liang 2008) compared the descriptions of the Sovereign of Emptiness Altar (xuhuang tan 虛皇壇) between the Golden Book of Salvation and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, highlighting the modifications made in the latter. Pu Hengqiang 蒲亨強 (Pu 2008, pp. 134–38) paid particular attention to the musical elements embedded in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. Lu Guolong 盧國龍 and Wang Guiping 汪桂平 (Lu and Wang 2009, pp. 131–32) offered a detailed description of the religious ritual background associated with its creation. Through historical analysis, Mark Meulenbeld 梅寶林 (Meulenbeld 2015, pp. 160–66) elaborates on Zhou Side’s role in supporting Emperor Zhu Di’s reign during the Ming dynasty and highlights that the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement compiled by Zhou Side served as a key text in standardizing the belief system surrounding the Marshal deity. Researchers such as Chang Chao Jan (Chang 2014, pp. 11–12; 2019, pp. 129–30; 2022, pp. 187–94), Asano Haruji 淺野春二 (Asano 2015, pp. 45–68; Asano 2016, pp. 102–25), and Cheng Tsan Shan 鄭燦山 (Cheng 2024, pp. 71–84) have specifically focused on particular categories of rituals within the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, and have produced significant findings. Their studies typically begin by outlining the ritual procedures, then proceed to compare various rituals within the same category or across different texts, and conclude with an analysis of the ritual content. In addition, during their fieldwork on rituals, researchers such as Wang Guiping (G. Wang 2006, pp. 123–36) and Lin Ting Yu 林庭宇 (Lin 2010, p. 75) have frequently drawn upon the content of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement. |
8 | To illustrate the similarities between the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating and the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, I have chosen to present the findings in a comparative table, which is included in Appendix A. Due to space constraints, here, I only provide a comparison of the texts that explain the key stages of Salvation through Refinement. It should be noted that all quotations from the Inner Method for Sacrificing to and Sublimating cited in this study are based on the Hanfen Lou 涵芬樓 edition of the Daoist Canon, reproduced by Taiwan’s Yee Wen Press 藝文館 in 1962. The bracketed text in the tables indicates missing sections in the original edition, supplemented by the author using the early Ming (1368–1424) Fu Qizong 傅啟宗 block-printed edition held by the National Library of China. |
9 | Zhang Zehong (Z. Zhang 2012, p. 39) and Zhu Yiwen (Zhu 2016, pp. 55–56) have both noted that certain passages related to Salvation through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement are identical to those in the Brief Discussions of Inner Method. However, neither scholar has explored the relationship between the two texts in further detail. |
10 | The term “heqi” discussed here refers to the practice of uniting the qi within the human body with the qi of Heaven and Earth. By contrast, in the early traditions of the Way of the Celestial Masters (tianshi dao 天師道), there was another practice also called “heqi”—the rites of sexual union. In traditional Chinese cosmology, men are associated with yang (陽) and women with yin (陰). The latter form of heqi refers to a method of cultivation through the sexual union of male and female practitioners, aimed at complementing their internal yang and yin energies and thereby achieving a state of equilibrium. Although these two practices share the same name, they differ significantly in purpose, method, and doctrinal background. This distinction is noted here to avoid potential confusion. |
11 | Previous scholarship has examined the relationship between intellectual trends and Daoist rituals, but most studies have focused on how intellectual movements influenced the contents of ritual texts. This paper suggests that intellectual trends may also have shaped the evolution of ritual forms. Although this hypothesis requires further historical evidence and scholarly support, the analysis presented here indicates that the interaction between intellectual trends and ritual form warrants closer investigation. Given its hypothetical nature, I have approached this perspective with caution throughout the paper. |
12 | Jiang Shuyu 蔣叔輿 (1162–1223)’s Standardized Rituals of the Supreme Yellow Register Retreat (Wushang Huanglu Dazhai Licheng Yi 無上黃籙大齋立成儀), as well as Great Rites of the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity by both Jin Yunzhong and Wang Qizhen, all mention a Daoist figure named Tian Jushi 田居實. The Literary Writings of the History of Song (Songshi Yiwen Zhi 宋史藝文志) also records: “Daoist Tian Jushi, Collected Works of Sikong (Sikong Ji 司空集) in two volumes”. Maruyama Hiroshi 丸山宏 believes that this Tian Jushi is the same person as Tian Sizhen 田思真 and provides further explanation (Maruyama 2004, p. 490). John Lagerwey 勞格文 identifies the “Master Tian” mentioned in the Great Rites of the Superior Scripture of the Numinous Treasure on Limitless Salvation (Lingbao Wuliang Duren Shangjing Dafa 靈寶無量度人上經大法) as Tian Jushi. However, he does not elaborate on the connection between Tian Jushi and Tian Lingxu (Schipper and Verellen 2005, p. 1029). In my examination of Wang’s Great Rites of the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity, I noted that Volume 54 refers to a “Transcendent Gentleman Tian” (tian xianweng 田仙翁). However, it remains unclear whether this figure is to be identified as Tian Sizhen. |
13 | There is scholarly disagreement over Zhou Side’s sectarian affiliation. Some scholars have identified him as a Daoist of the Eastern Florescence Sect (Liang 2008, p. 12; G. Zhang 2014, p. 178; W. Chen 2015, p. 394). This view is largely based on his endorsement of Tian Sizhen and Ning Quanzhen, as well as his recompilation of the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, which expands on Lin Lingzhen’s Golden Book of Salvation. In earlier sources, Tian, Ning, and Lin are all identified as Daoists linked to the Eastern Florescence Sect. However, this conclusion may not be entirely accurate. First, Zhou never explicitly identified himself as a member of the Eastern Florescence lineage. Second, in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, Zhou enumerates the lists of deities, including Tian, Ning, and Lin, none of whom are designated with the appellation “Eastern Florescence.” Furthermore, Zhou established a distinct sacred position titled “Successive Generations of Masters and Perfected Ones Who Led the Eastern Florescence Sect in the Salvation of Humanity” (donghua lingjiao lidai duren shizhen 東華領教歷代度人師真), thereby clearly distinguishing them from the aforementioned three figures. These details suggest that classifying Zhou as a Daoist of the Eastern Florescence Sect is likely unfounded. Other scholars have attempted to categorize Zhou as belonging to the Clear Subtlety lineage (R. G. Wang 2022, pp. 101–2) but have provided no concrete evidence to support this claim. The Daoist practices upheld by Zhou include the Salvific Tenets of the Numinous Treasure and the Method of the Five Thunders of the Fire Court. The former is primarily manifested in the salvation rituals recorded in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement, while the earlier texts associated with it all claim to be part of the Numinous Treasure tradition (Hsieh 2012b, p. 183). The latter refers to a set of Five Thunder rites used to summon Marshal Wang, a martial deity who serves the Celestial Emperor (tiandi 天帝) and who is widely revered as a Divine Officer (lingguan 靈官). Hence, this method is also known as the rites of the Divine Officer. The Corpus of Taoist Ritual records three distinct rites associated with Marshal Wang, all of which feature Sa Shoujian as the primary ritual master and Marshal Wang as the summoned divine general. This indicates that when performing such rites, the ritual master must first undergo the transformation into a divine body to embody Sa Shoujian and then summon Marshal Wang to assign him specific tasks. In later periods, Sa Shoujian was commonly associated with the Divine Empyrean (shenxiao 神霄) Sect, which rose to prominence during the Northern Song dynasty and is characterized by its emphasis on Thunder rites. Shao Yuanjie 邵元節 (1459–1539) composed the epitaph for Chen Yingyu 陳應䙉 (1448–1529), a disciple of Zhou. In it, he noted that Zhou had deeply engaged with the thought of Tian Sizhen and inherited the core principles of the Numinous Treasure tradition, thereby allowing his Xihe 西河 lineage to flourish (Hou 2023, p. 86). Sa is said to have been a native of Xihe in Shu 蜀, which corresponds to present-day Tangchang 唐昌 Town in Pidu 郫都 District, Chengdu 成都, Sichuan 四川 Province. Thus, the Xihe lineage mentioned here most likely refers to a tradition that venerated Sa as its ancestral master. The Books from the Hidden Library of Ancient Books (Gushu Yinlou Cangshu 古書隱樓藏書) records that “Perfected Lord Sa has a Xihe lineage” (Min, 2010, p. 112) and the Comprehensive Register of the Lineages and Branches of the Real Men (Zhuzhen Zongpai Zongbu 諸真宗派總簿), preserved in the Abbey of the White Clouds (baiyun guan 白雲觀), also includes the lineage poem for the “Xihe Lineage of Perfected Lord Sa” (Li 2002, p. 452). It is evident that Zhou was a Daoist priest who inherited both Numinous Treasure and Divine Empyrean rites, with no discernible influence from the Clear Subtlety tradition in his transmission. |
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Chen, H. Inner Methods and Outer Rites: An Exploration of Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity. Religions 2025, 16, 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060767
Chen H. Inner Methods and Outer Rites: An Exploration of Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity. Religions. 2025; 16(6):767. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060767
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Hongyi. 2025. "Inner Methods and Outer Rites: An Exploration of Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity" Religions 16, no. 6: 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060767
APA StyleChen, H. (2025). Inner Methods and Outer Rites: An Exploration of Salvation Through Refinement in the Golden Writings on the Great Achievement of Deliverance by the Numinous Treasure of Highest Clarity. Religions, 16(6), 767. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060767