The Secret of Golden Flower (Jinhua Zongzhi 金華宗旨) and Zhu Yuanyu 朱元育’s Neidan Method: Centering on the Examination of the Content of Chapter Eight, “Instruction for Rambling Without Destination (Xiaoyao Jue 逍遥訣)”

Abstract

This paper re-examines the Inner Alchemy methods found in The Secret of Golden Flower, or Taiyi Jinhua Zongzhi (太乙金華宗旨, abbreviated as JZ), a text created through fuji (spirit-writing) attributed to Lüzu (呂祖) in Changzhou 常州 during the late 17th century. Recent research has shown that Pan Yi’an (潘易庵), one of the primary editors of JZ, was, in fact, the same person as Pan Jingguan (潘靜觀), who assisted in the editing of Illuminating the Mystery of Concordance of the Three According to the Book of Changes (Cangtongqi chanyou, 参同契闡幽) and Illuminating the Mystery of Awakening the Perfection (Wuzhen pian chanyou, 悟真篇闡幽) as a disciple of Zhu Yuanyu (朱元育), the editor of these works. Meanwhile, in my recent research, I have reconstructed the Inner Alchemy methods described in these two works. (For the sake of convenience, in this discussion, I will refer to this system as the “Chanyou neidan method”, as both works include the term “Chanyou” in their titles.) Upon re-examining JZ with this framework in mind, I began to suspect that its content might be based on the Chanyou neidan method. This hypothesis is rendered highly plausible by the fact that Pan Yi’an, a key editor of JZ, was the same individual as Pan Jingguan, who assisted in the editing of the two Chanyou works. The aim of this paper is to analyze the similarities and differences between the content of JZ and the Chanyou neidan method, demonstrating that the former is indeed based on the latter. Furthermore, I intend to show that while JZ incorporates the Chanyou neidan method, it also simplifies its content significantly, making it a practical manual designed for literati (士大夫 shidafu) of the Qing dynasty to integrate Inner Alchemy into their daily lives. Additionally, although JZ was created through fuji (spirit-writing), I propose that fuji also functioned as a means for Qing-era literati to adapt Daoist cultivation practices to their own lifestyles.

1. Introduction

The Secret of Golden Flower, or Taiyi Jinhua Zongzhi 太乙金華宗旨 (hereinafter abbreviated as JZ), has become a world-renowned Chinese classic of inner cultivation since its translation by Richard Wilhelm was brought to the attention of Carl Gustav Jung. Recent studies have revealed that it is a scripture created by means of spirit-writing, or fuji 扶乩, attributed to a very famous transcendent, the Patriarch Lü, Lüzu 呂祖 (also known as Lü Dongbin 呂洞賓, Lü Yan 呂巖, LüChunyang 呂純陽, Fuyou dijun, 孚佑帝君, etc.), at the spirit-writing altar called White Dragon Pavilion 白龍精舎 in Chang zhou 常州 (Piling 毘陵) around 1668 (see Mori 1998b, pp. 43–64; Esposito 1998, pp. 90–109). It has also been pointed out that Pan Yi’an 潘易庵, one of the leaders of the spirit-writing group who published JZ, was the same person as Pan Jingguan 潘靜觀 (d. 1671), a disciple of Zhu Yuanyu 朱元育 (see Liu 2010, pp. 8–10; Nagasawa 2011; see also Lai 2016a, 2016b, 2017), a Daoist master of Inner Alchemy (neidan) during the early Qing dynasty. He compiled with Pan Jingguan his major books on inner alchemical theory: Illuminating the Mystery of Concordance of the Three Accordance to the Book of Changes, or Cangtongqi chanoyu 参同契闡幽, and Illuminating the Mystery of Awakening the Perfection, or Wuzhen pian Chanyou 悟真篇闡幽. Zhu claims himself to belong to the Longmen Lineage 龍門派 of Quanzhen Daoism 全真教, and, as his disciple, Pan Jingguan was also a practitioner belonging to the Longmen Lineage. However, Pan’s lineage identity is more diverse than that of Zhu Yuanyu. It is well known that Pan Yian (that is, Pan Jingguan) mentions that he belongs to the Jingming lineage 浄明道, while, as a disciple of Lüzu who descends to their spirit-writing altar, he claims that he belongs to the Taiyi fapai 太乙法派. Some scholars have clarified that Pan was also a friend of Li Yong 李顒 (1627–1705), a famous scholar of Yangming studies 陽明学 in Changzhou (Ibid.). It has also been pointed out that the practice of Circulating the Light, or huiguang (回光), which is frequently referred to in JZ, is closely related to the huiguang mentioned in the Recorded Sayings of Patriarch Qiu, Qiuzu yulu 邱祖語録, which was published by Pan Jingguan with Zhu Yuanyu’s permission probably in 1667 (Mori 1998a, pp. 257–73; Liu 2010; Nagasawa 2011; Lai 2016a, 2016b, 2017).

In recent years, I have conducted a detailed study of Zhu Yuanyu’s neidan texts, Cangtongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian Chanyou (Mori 2021, pp. 49–74; 2022, pp. 23–51). In that process, I came to be convinced that the neidan methods found in these two works and the one found in JZ are closely related. In this paper, I would like to report on such commonalities shared among these methods.

The basic texts of the three books referred to in this paper are as follows:

• Xiantian xuwu taiyi jinhua zongzhi 先天虛無太乙金華宗旨 with prefaces by Pan Yian 潘易庵 and others dated 1692, juan 49 of Lüzu quanshu 呂祖全書 in 64 scrolls compiled by Shao Zhilin 邵志琳 (1748–1810) with his own preface dated 1775, housed in Tsukuba University Library 筑波大学図書館 (abbreviated as JZ).
• Cantongqi 参同契. Attributed to Wei Boyang 魏伯陽. Annotated by Zhu Yuanyu 朱元育 (also known as Yunyang daoren 雲陽道人). [Known as Cantongqi chanoyu 参同契闡幽. Compiled by ZhuYuanyu 朱元育.] DZJY Xuji 虛集1: 1-Xuji 2:101, in Daozang jicheng 道藏集成, second series 第二輯, vol. 26–27, compiled by He Jianming 何建明, Beijing: Zhongguo shudian 中国書店, 2021 (mentioned as Cantongqi chanyou).
• Wuzhenpian 悟真篇. Compiled by Zhang Boduan 張伯端 (987–1082). Annotated by Zhu Yuanyu 朱元育 (also known as Yunyang daoren 雲陽道人). [Known as Wuzhenpian chanoyu 悟真篇闡幽. Compiled by ZhuYuanyu 朱元育.] DZJY Kuiji 奎集 3:1–89, in Daozang jicheng 道藏集成, second series 第二輯, vol. 36, compiled by He Jianming 何建明, Beijing: Zhongguo shudian 中国書店, 2021 (mentioned as Wuzhenpian chanyou).

As the text of JZ, we are going to use the earliest extant version included in Shao Zhilin 邵志琳’s Complete Writings of Patriarch Lü (Lüzu quanshu 呂祖全書), that is, text (1). This is the very version that Pan Jingguan contributed to its compilation.

2. Main Purpose of This Paper

The main purpose of this paper is as follows.

As Nagasawa and Esposito have shown, respectively, the contents of JZ are centered on the neidan method called huiguang 回光, or Circulating the Light (see Nagasawa 2012, pp. 1–20; Esposito 2013, p. 268; see also Esposito 2021, pp. 909–21). While that is by no means incorrect, the author posits that there are two slightly different neidan methods described in JZ. The first is a method that has been the focus of much attention in previous studies and is a simple method called huiguang, which is performed as a form of jingzuo 静坐, or silent sitting. This method is recommended to be practiced for two to four hours, especially in the early morning, and is a simple method that can be practiced in the time available in daily life. Its contents are introduced and discussed in detail by Shiho Nagasawa’s research (See Nagasawa 2011, 2012).

The other is the neidan method focused on especially in Chapter 8 of JZ. This method is rather extensive and includes not only the Circulating Light method but also a relatively large-scale method that incorporates the Lesser Celestial Circuit (xiao zhoutian小周天) and the Greater Celestial Circuit (da zhoutian 大周天) based on, according to my research elaborated below, the neidan method of Zhu Yuanyu’s Cantongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian chanyou. Hereafter, for the sake of convenience, this neidan method discussed mainly in Chapter 8 of JZ will be referred to as the “Chapter 8 neidan method”. (We should notice that the “Chapter 8 neidan method” is not exclusively referred to in Chapter 8 though. Some related elements are also found in other chapters of the book.)

3. Outline of the Chanyou Neidan Method

In my two previous articles, I have attempted to analyze and reconstruct the structure of the neidan method presupposed by the authors of the Cantongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian chanoyu (See Mori 2021, pp. 49–74; 2022, pp. 23–51). This analysis showed several clear points. First, although these works are attributed to Zhu Yuanyu, there are traces of co-editing with Pan Jingguan in both works. This suggests that Pan Jingguan was always heavily involved in Zhu Yuanyu’s publishing activities.1 As mentioned above, Pan Jingguan was also at the core of the compilation of JZ. This further reinforces the assumption that the “Chapter 8 neidan method” in JZ is deeply related to the co-works of Zhu Yuanyu and Pan Jingguan.

Second, although Cantongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian chanyou are commentaries on different books, the author Zhu Yuanyu and his collaborator Pan Jingguan recognize that the neidan method that existed in the background of both books is the same. In my article in 2022, I demonstrated that the neidan method found in Wuzhenpian chanyou was nearly the same as the one found in Cantongqi chanyou. For the sake of convenience, I will refer to the neidan method assumed in Cantongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian chanyou as the “Chanyou neidan method 闡幽内丹法”.

Third, the characteristics of the “Chanyou neidan method” can be summarized as follows. First, it is based on a clear worldview with two parts, which consists of Forward Movement (shun 順) and Backward Movement (ni 逆). According to this view, the universe develops from “Before Heaven 先天” to “After Heaven 後天”. This is the process of “forward movement”. The first stage of “Before Heaven” is called the “Great Void (taixu 太虛). The “Great Void” embraces the “Great Ultimate (taiji 太極)”, from which the pair of Qian and Kun 乾坤 (a metaphysical entity of the Heaven and the Earth) is generated. Qian and Kun is also paraphrased as “Inner Nature and Vital Force (xingming 性命)”. This marks the end of the “Before Heaven” process. Then, Qian and Kun change into the pair of Kan and Li 坎離, a decisive shift from “Before Heaven” to “After Heaven”.

It is precisely at the end of this cosmic evolution from “Before Heaven” to “After Heaven” that a human is born with the sound of the birth cry, or “‘He!’ de yi sheng 㘞地一聲”.2 As a result, Kan is located in the body (shen 身), while Li is located in the heart (xin 心).3 More specifically, Kan is called the root of Vital Force (mingdi 命蒂) and is located in the Lower Cinnabar Field (xiadantian 下丹田), which is also called the Ocean of Qi (qihai 氣海), and Li is called the Root of Inner Nature (性根) and is said to reside in the Celestial Valley (tiangu 天谷) in the head.4 This is how Kan and Li are said to have come to exist in the body a great distance from each other. What has been mentioned so far is the process of “Forward Movement”, that penetrates the development of the universe and the generation of the human body.

The neidan method is a process of going back to the root of the universe by using “Backward Movement (ni 逆)” against “Forward Movement”. Zhu says in his commentary to Wuzhenpian, “It is only about the alternation of yin and yang. If you move forward with it, you become worldly; if you move backward against it, you become a saint. 只此一陰一陽, 順之卽凡, 逆之卽聖”. In other words, the practitioner can merge Kan and Li divided into the body and the heart, reduce them to Qian and Kun, and then merge Qian and Kun into the “Great Ultimate” and then into the “Great Void”. The reduction of Qian and Kun into the “Great Void” seems to be realized by attaining pure Qian, which represents the Golden Inner Nature (jinxing 金性). Attaining the Golden Inner Nature means becoming the transcendent, or xian 仙.

In the Chanyou neidan method, the process of “Backward Movement” can be roughly divided into the process of “Uniting Kan and Li (kanli jiaogou 坎離交媾)” and the process of “Uniting Qian and Kun (qiankun jiaogou 乾坤交媾)”. The former is called the “Lesser Celestial Circuit (xiao zhoutian)” and the latter the “Greater Celestial Circuit (da zhoutian)”. In fact, such a diagram of Forward Movement versus Backward Movement and the diagram of the “Unity between Kan and Li” to the “Unity between Qian and Kun” are not unique to the Chanyou neidan method, but rather, they are based on the concept of the preceding neidan method. For example, this unity between phrases and ideas such as kanli jiaogou coupled with xiao zhoutian and qiankun jiaogou coupled with da zhoutian can be found in the neidan method of Wu Shouyang 伍守陽 (1574–1643) in the late Ming Dynasty.5

However, there is one unique feature of the Chanyou neidan method. It is the idea that the moment of the starting point of the “Lesser Celestial Circuit” is called the “Spontaneous Zero Hour (huozishi 活子時)” and the moment of the starting point of the “Greater Celestial Circuit” is called the “Precise Zero Hour (zhengzishi 正子時)”. The two are always experienced by the practitioner as a pair of before-and-after timings, neither of which can be separated from the other. Although both the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and “Precise Zero Hour” can be found in other earlier neidan books, some of which even mention them as a contrasting pair,6 the Chanyou neidan method seems to be the first to use them as an inseparable pair of timings that reach before and after in a sequence of inner cultivation.

Let me introduce the Chanyou neidan method in more detail. The contents can be generally summarized as a process from (A) to (D) as follows:

• (A) The “Lessor Celestial Circuit” (in the broader sense) is performed. This is also called “Uniting Kan and Li”. As mentioned above, Kan and Li are separated in the body, which belongs to After Heaven.7
• (A-1) In the Yellow Courtyard (huangting 黄庭), the separated Kan and Li are reunited into one.
• (A-2) Next, the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” arrives, and the “Great Medicine (dayao 大藥)” emerges, which is captured (cai 採) in the Kun furnace (kunlu 坤爐, i.e., the Lower Cinnabar Field). It takes about two hours to reach this stage.
• (A-3) Next, the Lesser Celestial Circuit (xiaozhoutian 小周天) in the narrow sense is practiced. (The Lesser Celestial Circuit in the broadest sense begins at (A-1).) In this process, the Great Medicine is guided by Perfect Intention (zhenyi 眞意) existing in the eye light (muguang 目光) and is lifted from the Kun furnace to the Qian Tripod (qianding 乾鼎, i.e., the Upper Cinnabar Field), where the Great Medicine coagulates to become the Golden Elixir (jindan 金丹). This process is described as Taking [the Yang in the Middle of] Kan and Filling [the Yin in the Middle of] Li (qukan tianli 取坎填離). It takes about one hundred days. The process is also called Building the Foundation in One Hundred Days (bairi liji 百日立基).
• (B) Then, the Greater Celestial Circuit takes place. This is a method of uniting Qian and Kun, each of which has been established as a result of the Lesser Heaven Circuit. This method is also known as Uniting Qian and Kun. It is a practice that takes about 10 months to complete. This process (B) can be divided into two stages:
• (B-1) First, the Precise Zero Hour arrives, which opens the process of the Greater Celestial Circuit. A hint of the single and first yang (yiyang 一陽) moves at the Lower Cinnabar Field, where the Golden Liquor (jinye 金液) appears.
• (B-2) Next, the Greater Celestial Circuit in the narrow sense begins. The Golden Liquor is loaded onto the River Chariot (heche 河車) and taken from the Caudal Gate (weilü 尾閭) to the Mount Kunlun or the Celestial Valley at the top of the head. There, the Golden Liquor coagulates and is sent back to the Yellow Courtyard. By repeating this cycle and refining the Golden Liquor, the Return of the Golden Liquor to the Cinnabar Field (jinye huandan 金液還丹) is completed.
• (C) This is followed by three years of Suckling (rubu 乳哺) to nurture the Sacred Embryo (shengtai 聖胎).
• (D) Nine years of the practice of the Facing the Wall (mianbi 面壁) is conducted. This completes the entire process of the practice (Mori 2021, pp. 70–71).

The usage of the idea of the Lesser Celestial Circuit, that is, the Union of Kan and Li, in the Chanyou neidan method seems to be somewhat inconsistent. In some cases, these words stand for the first half of this neidan method, which includes (A-1), (A-2), and (A-3), while in other cases, they represent only (A-3). To avoid confusion, I will refer to the former as the Lesser Celestial Circuit in the broad sense and the latter as the Lesser Celestial Circuit in the narrow sense.

4. Outline of “Chapter 8 Neidan Method” in JZ and Its Comparison with Chanyou Neidan Method

In the following sections, I would like to show that the contents of the above Chanyou’s neidan method can be compared to some extent with the contents of the “Chapter 8 neidan method” found in Chapter 8 and other parts of JZ.

First, what is the basic view of the universe in JZ? In JZ, there is no passage that systematically describes the view of the universe. However, Chapter 3 says that after being born, one cannot help but “go forward (shun 順)” in one’s environment, and if one does not know how to “reverse one’s gaze (nishi 逆視)”, one will lose one’s Yang Qi and end up in hell. This is similar to the idea expressed in the Chanyou neidan method, which explains the process of “Forward Movement” and “Backward Movement” while using the same words “wadi yisheng 㘞地一聲”.8 Although the expression in JZ is rather simplified, it is understood that it has almost the same view of the universe as the Chanyou neidan method.9

Let us now examine the contents of Chapter 8 of JZ. In Chapter 8, entitled “Instruction for Rambling Without Destination (xiaoyao jue 逍遥訣)”, a Qiyan lüshi (eight-line regulated verse) is presented first, and then the contents are explained phrase by phrase. The content of the poem is as follows:

In Jade Clarity Heaven [where the Celestial Worthy of Original Commencement (Yuanshi tianzun 元始天尊) resides], there left an Instruction for Rambling Without Distination.

The four Chinese characters [for “Doing nothing will do everything 無爲而爲”] help you coagulate your spirit and put it into your Qi.

In the sixth month you will see the white snow flying,

In the midnight (sangeng 三更) you will see a wheel of the sun shining brightly.

From the water you will rise with the wind of the xun (xunfeng 巽風),

[After] playing in the Heaven, you will return to feed on the virtue of the Earth (Kunde 坤徳).

If we add another phrase that is even more profound,

The realm of Nothingwhatever (Wuheyou xiang 無何有鄕) is the true home.

玉淸留下逍遙訣、四字凝神入氣穴、

六月俄看白雪飛、三更又見日輪赫、

水中吹起藉巽風、天上遊歸食坤德、

更有一句玄中玄、無何有鄕是眞宅。 (JZ, 14a)

After the poem is shown, a series of explanations follows. According to my reading, the explanation can be roughly divided into six sections. I will give an outline of each section and then comment on its correspondence with the section of Zhu Yuanyu’s neidan methods that I have already summarized above.

4.1. Section 1

First of all, when you “enter stillness (i.e., when you enter the practice hall, or rujing入靜)”, you abandon all thought and correctly place the “Celestial Heart” in the “middle” position. This is probably to direct your gaze to the “Yellow Courtyard” in the head. The “Celestial Heart” is clearly described in Chapter 1 of JZ as the upper Cinnabar Field located on the face or head.10 It should also be noted that the Yellow Courtyard in JZ is said to be the same as the “Celestial Heart” and is also located at the head.11 This preparatory technique for beginning the meditation is called “Hanging the curtain (chuilian 垂簾)”. The technique is described as “looking carefully at the tip of the nose with both eyes 以両目諦観鼻端” in Chapter 3 (Ibid., 7a), where Patriarch Lü mentions Xiao zhiguan [天台]小止観 as a resource for this practice (Ibid., 7b).

“Hanging down the curtain” is mentioned in Zhu Yuanyu’s Canytongqi chanyou, although it does not give much information about the detailed aspect of Zhu’s technique. In his commentary, Zhu says, “You should silently hang down the curtain and invert your sense of hearing so that the Qi of Kan and Li does not leak out. 默默垂簾, 頻頻逆聽, 則坎離之炁不泄矣12”. Here, Zhu is not necessarily referring to the technique as just a preparation technique but as a meditation technique of “Uniting Kan and Li” in general. Nonetheless, it deserves to be mentioned as one of the small pieces of evidence suggesting that Zhu and JZ share the same terminology. In this section, however, the differences rather than similarities between the neidan method of Chapter 8 and of Zhu Yuanyu are more pronounced. Setting the center of meditation at the Upper Cinnabar Field is a very basic feature of the entire Huiguang (Circulating the Light) technique described in JZ, whereas Zhu Yuanyu does not explicitly mention the Upper Cinnabar Field as the sole center of the meditation. He also suggests that the Yellow Courtyard is located in the lower part of the body compared to the Upper Cinnabar Field. The emphasis on the Upper Cinnabar Field is a characteristic of JZ.

4.2. Section 2

After completing the preparation for meditation in the first part, the practitioner illuminates the Kan Palace (kan gong 坎宫):

Next, [the practitioner] uses his/her [light of] the two eyes and illuminates the Kan Palace from within. Where the light reaches, the True Yang appears to respond (i.e., illumination of the eye light).

次以二目, 內照坎宮。光華所到, 眞陽卽出以應之 (JZ, 15a)

This meditation of illuminating the Kan Palace is mentioned a few lines later as “Circulating the light to illuminate within (huigunag neizhao 回光内照)”. Therefore, practitioners should use the technique of “Circulating the Light” when they illuminate their Palace of Kan. By illuminating the Kan Palace with the light of the eye, the “True Yang (zhenyang 眞陽)” of the middle yao爻 of Kan坎卦 is manifested. This “True Yang” is drawn upward by the Li (li 離) that resides at the top, and “the two things are united as one. They are connected and do not separate. They move together, and they alternately float and sink. 二物一遇，便紐結不散散，絪縕活動，倏浮倏沉” (JZ, 15a). 13

In this second section of the Chapter 8 neidan method, there is a striking similarity to (A-1) of the Chanyou neidan method. The technique of irradiating the Kan Palace with eye light to manifest the True Yang is common to both. The expression in Wuzhenpian chanyou is as follows:

Those who study Dao must illuminates the Kan Palace inwardly by means of True Fire in the Li. [Whereever the light has reaches,] the Golden Flower in the Kan will spontaneously appear and respond.

學道之士、心須以離中眞火、返照坎宫、坎中之金華、自出而應之。 (Kui3: 41b–42a)

In both cases, this can be interpreted as indicating a situation where the yang of the middle yao of Kan is illuminated to come out of the original location to meet the yin inside of Li. It should be noted that the expressions used in both cases are very similar, such as “内照坎宫” and “返照坎宫”, “光華” and “金華”, and “出以應之” and “出而應之”.

Then, in JZ, what and where is the Palace of Kan? Where is Li located? As I have mentioned earlier, Zhu Yuanyu explains that Kan is called the root of Vital Force (mingdi 命蒂) and is located in the Lower Cinnabar Field (xiadantian 下丹田), which is also called the Ocean of Qi (qihai 氣海), and Li is called the Root of Inner Nature (性根) and is said to reside in the Celestial Valley (tiangu 天谷) in the head. Now that we have confirmed the correspondence between JZ and Zhu Yuanyu’s Wuzhenpian chanyou at least in this part, it seems safe to say that they share the same terminology to express the Union between Kan and Li. Also, in JZ, the Kan Palace seems to be in the Lower Cinnabar, and Li is in the head, maybe in the Upper Cinnabar.

However, there is an important difference between the expression of Chapter 8 neidan method in JZ and Zhu Yuanyu’s text. JZ clearly states that it is the “two eyes (ermu)” that illuminate the Palace of Kan, while Zhu Yuanyu only states that it is illuminated “by means of True Fire in Li” and does not refer to the illumination of the eye light. It is unclear whether or not Zhu Yuanyu was thinking of the use of eye light in this technique when he wrote Wuzhanpian chanyou. In any case, the fact that JZ refers to it as irradiation with “two eyes” is probably related to the fact that JZ emphasizes the use of the eye light for Circulating the Light throughout its entire text.

4.3. Section 3

This third section says that “True Unification (zhen jiaogou 眞交媾)” is achieved. From the context of the second section, it is clear that this “Unification” is made between Kan and Li, which have been connected and moved together.

When the union between Kan and Li reaches its climax, the text of Chapter 8 says that the Celestial Heart (tianxin 天心) suddenly moves, and the “Spontaneous Zero Hour (huozishi 活子時)” arrives.14 This clearly explains that the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” comes after the meeting of Kan and Li. This part corresponds to (A-2) of Zhu’s neian method.

However, the position of Celestial Heaven, which is supposed to move at this point, is a bit confusing. The description of the Celestial Heart that is supposed to move at the climax of the unification between Kan–Li rises to the top of the head (天心既升乾頂) (Ibid., 16a). On the other hand, as mentioned above, JZ describes the “Celestial Heart” as the Upper Cinnabar Field in the head. Does the “Celestial Heart” rise from some lower place in the head to the top of the head? But it seems that the Upper Cinnabar Field and the top of the head are almost the same part of the body, and even if they are not, their movement path seems too short and unnatural. Another possibility is that the “Celestial Heart” arises right after the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” in the lower part of the body, such as the Lower Cinnabar Field, and then rises to the Upper Cinnabar Field. We will continue to discuss this issue of the location of the starting point of the ascent of the “Celestial Heaven” when we deal with the next section.

Although the path of movement of the “Celestial Heart” is still to be discussed, it is very certain that this third section and (A-2) of the Chanyou neidan method clearly coincide. Both refer to the arrival of “Spontaneous Zero Hour”, which comes after the “Kan-Li Unification”.15

4.4. Section 4

After the “Spontaneous Zero Hour”, the “Celestial Heart” is raised by “True Intention (zhenyi 眞意)” (also called “eye light 目光” or “Spiritual Light 神光”) to the “Palace of the Qian (Qiangong 乾宮)”, which is at the top of the head. When the “Celestial Heart” at the top of the head is still, it is again led by the “True Intention” to the Yellow Courtyard, or “Spiritual Chamber of Middle Yellow 中黄神室”, in the Upper Cinnabar Field. Through this process, both the practitioner’s body and mind are left in oblivion, and countless indirect causes (wanyuan 萬縁) also disappear. This situation is described as “the Heaven enters the Earth (tian ru di zhong 天入地中)” and also as “Numerous mysterious beings return to their root (衆妙帰根)16”. The commentaries on the first two lines of the poem end in this section.

There are several points of agreement between this section and the Chanyou neidan method (A-3). Both the Cantongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian chanyou say that when the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” arrives, “Great Medicine (dayao 大藥)” is immediately generated, which is then lifted by “True Intention” to the top of the head, the “Tripod of Qian (qianding 乾鼎)”, or “Celestial Valley”, and then placed in the “Yellow Courtyard”. If we now substitute “Celestial Heart” for the “Great Medicine” produced with the arrival of the “Spontaneous Zero Hour”, this is almost exactly the same as the Chapter 8 neidan method in JZ.

Another important point of agreement with the Chanyou neidan method is that the Chapter 8 neidan method uses practically the same method as the “Circulation of the Light” method in ascending the “Great Medicine” to the top of the head. For example, in Cantongqi chanoyu, it says the following:

When the [Greart] Medicine arises, you have to lift it up with your True Intention, look up without stopping, send it by your Spirit, and immediately raise it up to the Celestial Valley.

藥生之時、須用眞意以採之、徘徊上視、送之以神、令其直升天谷。 (Xu 2: 73a)

In other words, the ascent of the Great Medicine through True Intention is guided by the movement of the eye light “looking up (shangshi 上視)”.

Similarly, in the commentary to the Wuzhenpian chanyou, “悟真篇闡幽”, the ascent of the Great Medicine through True Intention is described as follows:

Again, you should use Spiritual Light and circulate it, and embrace [the Great Medicine] from moment to moment. You should never stop it even for a moment.

又當以神光刻刻迴抱、不可須臾間斷。 (Kui 3: 13b)

Here, Zhu Yuanyu clearly mentions the Circulation of Light.

In terms of vocabulary, in the Chapter 8 neidan method, when the medicine is drawn up by the True Intention and placed in the Yellow Courtyard, it is expressed as “In a hurry, draw up [the Great Medicine] by the True Intention and place it in the Yellow Courtyard急以真意引入黃庭”. The same situation is expressed in the corresponding part of the Wuzhenpian chanyou as follows:

After the Great Medicine has been captured, [the practitioner] should send it by the True Intention, lat it ascend to the Celestial Valley, and place it in the Yellow Courtyard.

大藥旣採、卽以眞意送之、上升天谷、引入黃庭. (Kui 3: 13b)

The phrase “place it in the Yellow Courtyard 引入黃庭” is only found in Wuzhenpian chanyou before JZ. It is also not found in Daozang. Therefore, it is almost certain that JZ adopted this phrase from Zhu Yuanyu’s Wuzhenpian chanyou.

Similarly, the expression “the Heaven entersthe Earth (tian ru di zhong 天入地中)” in this fourth section of JZ is also only found in the Cantongqi chanyou through Daozang and Daozangjiyao, and it can be assumed that JZ adopted Zhu Yuanyu’s terminology.

However, there is one point in which the Chapter 8 neidan method differs significantly from the Chanyou neidan method. In the Chanyou neidan method, the word “Spontaneous Zero Hour” is followed by the emergence of the “Great Medicine”, while in the Chapter 8 neidan method, it is followed by the emergence of the “Celestial Heart”. Why did JZ not adopt the “Great Medicine”, even though it adopted the entire process of producing the “Great Medicine”?

Perhaps related to this point is the strong rejection of the “method of capturing [the Medicine]” expressed in Chapter 12 of JZ:

When this stage is reached, the mind is trained to recognize the object and the delusion is extinguished. After that, the Medicine arises. But this Medicine is not a tangible substance. It is the Light of the Inner Nature. It is the True Qi of the Before Heaven. Therefore, the Medicine always appears after the mind is fixed, and there is no method of capturing [the Medicine]. Those who talk about capturing [the Medicine] are making a big mistake.

於此鍛鍊識神、斷除妄見、然後藥生。藥非有形之物、此性光也。而卽先天之眞炁、然必於大定後方見、並無採法。言採者大謬矣。 (JZ, 22b)

Although the intention is not revealed, it is probably due to the emphasis on the “Practice of Inner Nature (xinggong 性功)” (JZ, 1b) in JZ. Perhaps the authors of JZ were wary of using the Great Medicine produced in the Lower Cinnabar as the basis for the Golden Elixir because it would lead to an inclination toward the Vital Force Lineage, or Ming zong 命宗, which bases its practice on substantial Qi.

4.5. Section 5

This section interprets the third and fourth lines of the poem: “In the Sixth month, you will see the white snow flying; In the midnight (san geng), you will see a wheel of the sun shining brightly”. According to the explanation, “in the Sixth month, you will see the white snow flying 六月俄看白雪飛” is an expression of the yin of the middle yao of Li returning to Kun, and “in the midnight, you will see a wheel of the sun shining brightly 三更又見日輪赫” is an expression of the yang of the middle yao 爻 of Kan returning to Qian. As explained in Shuogua zhuan 説卦傳 in the Book of Changes, Li and Kan are each one of the three daughters and three sons who were born from the union of Qian and Kun. Here, the coupling of Kan and Li is said to cause these two gua to return to their respective original state of Qian and Kun. This process is sometimes explained as the formation of Qian and Kun by Kan and Li exchanging their middle yao, in which case this process is called “Taking [the Yang in the Middle of] Kan and Filling [the Yin in] Li (qukan tianli 取坎填離)”. The author of the interpretation of the poem clearly states that qukan tianli is expressed in this verse 取坎填離、卽在此中 (17a).17

This section can be seen as corresponding to the end of (A-3) in the Chanyou neidan method, where we find an expression of qukan tianli 取坎填離. It is also safe to say that Sections 4–5 of Chapter 8 of JZ correspond to the Lesser Celestial Circuit in the narrow sense, that is, (A-3) of the Chanyou neidan method. In the Chanyou neidan method, especially in Cantongqi chanyou, it is said that it takes about 100 days to practice the Lesser Celestial Circuit (in the narrow sense) and that this is called “Building the Foundation (liji 立基)”. This corresponds to the “Building the Foundation in One Hundred Days (Bairi liji 百日立基)” referred to in Chapter 9 of JZ. This suggests that JZ also assumes that it takes a practitioner 100 days to practice the Lesser Celestial Circuit in the narrow. On the other hand, the duration of the Lesser and the Greater Celestial Circuit is at the practitioner’s discretion. I will discuss this aspect of JZ later.

4.6. Section 6

The next section explains the following two lines of the eight-line regulated verse: “From the water, you will rise with the Southeast Wind (xunfeng 巽風), “[After] playing in the Heaven, you will return to feed on the virtue of the Earth (Kunde 坤徳). 水中吹中起藉巽風, 天上遊歸食坤德”. According to the explanation, these verses describe the function of the Handle of the Big Dipper (doubing 斗柄). In the first part of Chapter 8, it is explained that the Handle of the Big Dipper represents the action of Two Eyes (ermu 二目), or the metaphor for the method of Circulating the Light, which is to let the light of the eyes circulate in the body. Patriarch Lü also explains that “the water” in the verse refers to Kan (kan 坎) and that the eyes generate a “Wind of Xun” and illuminate the Palace of Kan (kangong 坎宮) with “Eye Light (muguang 目光)” to capture the extremely powerful Qi of yang, which is then lifted up to the top of the head, or “Qian gua (qian gua 乾卦)”, which is also expressed as “Up in Heaven (tianshang 天上). So, the Qi goes back down to the Lower Cinnabar.18 Contrary to the Chanyou neidan method, this passage probably expresses the process of the Great Celestial Circuit method (B-2). Why is such an interpretation allowed? There are two reasons. One is that the Lesser Celestial Circuit can be considered to have been completed in Section 5, so the only method left to practice is the Greater Celestial Circuit method. The other reason is that the Wind of Xun is mentioned in Chapter 19 of Cantongqi chanyou.19 After perceiving the effect of the “Precise Zero Hour”, the Southeast Wind (Xunfeng 巽風) was mentioned as the driving force that moved the River Chariot (heche 河車) along the Governing Vessel (Du Mai 督脈) from the Great Mysterious Gate (Taixuan guan 太玄関) to the Celestial Valley (Tian Gu 天谷) with a full load of Golden Liquor (Jin ye 金液).20 From the above, Section 6 of the Chapter 8 neidan method should be regarded as equivalent to the Greater Celestial Circuit in the Chanyou neidan method.

But there is a problem here. That is, in Chapter 8 of JZ, there is no reference to the Precise Zero Hour (zhengzishi 正子時). In other words, the part corresponding to the Chanyou neidan method (B-1) seems to be missing. As mentioned above, the most prominent feature of the Chanyou neidan method is that it defines the time of capturing the Medicine for the Lesser Celestial Circuit as the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and the time of capturing the Medicine for the Greater Celestial Circuit as the “Precise Zero Hour” and uses them as a pair of time concepts. Is it possible to consider the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” mentioned in JZ to be a concept pair with “Precise Zero Hour”?

In fact, the “Precise Zero Hour” is mentioned in other chapters of JZ, along with the “Spontaneous Zero Hour”. The following is an excerpt from the last paragraph of Chapter 12 of JZ:

[You have asked [me (Patriarch Lü)] about the mysterious nature of the Spontaneous Zero Hour. You must know the Precise Zero Hour. How can you know the Spontaneous Zero Hour if you cannot clearly recognize the Precise Zero Hour? If you can recognize the Spontaneous Zero Hour, you will never fail to have the Precise Zero Hour. They are one and the same, and if there is no Precise Zero Hour, there is no Spontaneous Zero Hour.

問活子時甚妙。必認定正子時。似著相、不著相。不指明正子時、何從而識活子時。旣識得活子時、確然又有正子時。是一是二、非正非活。 (JZ, 23b)

The first thing to note is that the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and “Precise Zero Hour” certainly appear here in closely related pairs. This is similar to the theory of the Chanyou neidan method. However, the last part of this quote says, “They are one and the same, and if there is no Precise Zero Hour, there is no Spontaneous Zero Hour”. While the Chanyou neidan method makes a fairly clear distinction between the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and the “Precise Zero Hour” and places great importance on the distinction between the two, JZ’s argument here is that the distinction between the two should be eliminated. This claim by JZ is a claim that cancels an important part of the theory of the Chanyou neidan method. It means removing an essential distinction that allows a practitioner to notice the starting point of the “Lesser Celestial Circuit” and “Greater Celestial Circuit”. Why would such an argument arise?

In the Chanyou neidan method, especially in the Cantongqi chanyou, the time for practicing the Lesser Celestial Circuit and the Greater Celestial Circuit (one hundred days for the former and three hundred days for the latter) was clearly stated. However, JZ seems to be critical of the Chanyou neidan method’s length of practice time, and most of its rules regarding this are either removed or left to the practitioner’s discretion.

For example, Chapter 12 states, “There is one Celestial Circulation in a day and one Celestial Circulation in an hour (一日有一周天, 一刻有一周天)” and goes on to say that there is no distinction between large and small Celestial Circulations:

Here, the Fire Times actually have differences between greater and lesser, But there is no distinction between greater and lesser eventually.

此中火候、實實有大小不同、究竟無大小可別.21

Seemingly, JZ admits theoretically that there are differences between the “Lesser Celestial Circuit” and the “Greater Celestial Circuit”, but somehow, in a very essential point, it suggests these distinctions are meaningless.

When discussed in this way, it becomes clear that JZ’s argument involves a call for simplification of the neidan practice. JZ is trying to simplify the Chanyou neidan method. While JZ does not deny the importance of the distinction between the “Lesser Celestial Circuit” and the “Greater Celestial Circuit”, it is trying to tell its readers that there is no need to pay too much attention to this distinction when practicing. In fact, if one does not pay attention to the difference between the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and the “Precise Zero Hour”, then, the “Lesser Celestial Circuit” and the “Greater Celestial Circuit” can also be considered to be almost similar practices, through which the practitioner circulates the essential Qi with the guidance of the eye light.

I do not wish to complicate the discussion unnecessarily but let me explore an alternative possibility about how to interpret the discussion mentioned in the paragraph of Chapter 12 quoted above. It states, “You must be aware of Precise Zero Hour. How can you know the Spontaneous Zero Hour if you cannot clearly recognize the Precise Zero Hour?” The implication here is that the “Precise Zero Hour” can be more easily made an object of awareness than the “Spontaneous Zero Hour”. If we understand it in this way, we cannot deny the possibility that the “Precise Zero Hour” may indicate an external time. As I have mentioned in note 14, such an interpretation is likely to be made when we understand the meaning of the “Precise Zero Hour” found in Xingming guizhi.22 If interpreted in this way, we may be able to read into it the claim that practitioners are allowed to use the actual zero hour that occurs at midnight to find their own “Spontaneous Zero Hour”. Interpreted in this way, the meaning of the “Precise Zero Hour” would be very different from its meaning in the Chanyou neidan method. However, even in this case, JZ’s claim to a simpler practice remains the same. However, I would like to reject this (second) option to understand this paragraph. I assume that Pan Jingguan is very familiar with the use of the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and “Precise Zero Hour” pair since he has been working with Zhu Yuanyu on his co-writings for many years. Therefore, I assume, Pan Jingguan basically adopted the original idea of the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and “Precise Zero Hour” found in the Chanyou neidan method, then denied it. In the quote from Chapter 12 above, I think the emphasis is on the statement in the latter part of the quote that there is not much essential distinction between the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and “Precise Zero Hour”.

JZ does not mention the practice corresponding to the Chanyou neidan method of (C) three years of suckling (rubu 乳哺) and (D) Nine years of Facing the Wall (mianbi 面壁) found in the Chanyou neidan method. It seems to exclude these long-term practices from its system of practice. As discussed in Mori (2022), Wuzhenpian chanyou also criticizes these long-term practices, such as nine or three years (Mori 2022, p. 39a). When comparing JZ with both Cantongqi chanyou and Wuzhenpian chanyou, the similarities with Wuzhenpian chanyou may be more noticeable.

4.7. Summary of Chapter 8 Neidan Method and Its Relation to Chanyou Neidan Method

The above is an overview of the Chapter 8 neidan method and its relationship to the Chanyou neidan method. Here, I would like to summarize the following again:

Section 1 deals with the Hanging down the curtain (Chuilian 垂簾) method, which is also simply mentioned in the Chanyou neidan method.

Next, in Section 2, the Circulation of the Light (huiguang 回光) is performed, which involves illuminating the Kan Palace (Kan gong 坎宫) with the Light of the Eyes (muguang 目光) to manifest True Yang (zhen yang 真陽). This is combined with the Li 離 on the top of the head, and the union of Kan and Li takes place. This section corresponds to the Chanyou neidan method (A-1), in which Kan and Li are brought together in the Yellow Courtyard. (In Chanyou neidan method, the location of the Yellow Courtyard is not as clear as in JZ.)

In Section 3, the unification of Kan and Li reaches a critical point, and the Spontaneous Zero Hour (huozishi 活子時) arrives. This is similar to the Spontaneous Zero Hour of the Chanyou neidan method (A-2). However, the Celestial Heart (tianxin 天心), which can be said to be the point of contact with one’s Inner Nature, occupies the position of the Great Medicine (dayao 大藥) in the Chanyou neidan method. This indicates that JZ insists on the importance of the Inner Nature Practice (xinggong 性功).

In Section 4, after the Spontaneous Zero Hour, the Celestial Heart ascends to the Palace of Qian and Yellow Courtyard (huangting 黄庭) at the top of the head and then returns to the Lower Cinnabar Field. Then, the Celestial Heart makes a return trip to the Lower Cinnabar Field. This section has a lot of overlap with the Chanyou neidan method (A-3) and can be understood as a representation of the Lesser Celestial Circuit (xiaozhoutian 小周天) in the narrow sense.

In Section 5, it is shown that the process of Taking [the Yang in the Middle of] Kan and Filling [the Yin in the Middle of] Li (qukan tianli 取坎填離) is complete. This is consistent with the presence of a qukan tianli at the end of the Chanyou neidan method (A-3).

In Section 6, the Qi (Celestial Heart?) at the lowest part of the body, the Caudal Gate (weilü 尾閭), is lifted to the parietal through the Governing Vessel (Du Mai 督脈) by a technique using Circulation of the Light called Southwest Wind (xunfen 巽風), which is exactly the same as (B-2) of the Chanyou neidan method. However, JZ does not (at least explicitly) locate the “Precise Zero Hour” in its neidan practice. Rather, it seems to blur the virtual distinction between the “Spontaneous Zero Hour” and “Precise Zero Hour”, which is very important in the Chanyou neidan method. This is consistent with JZ’s other claim that the distinction between the “Lesser Celestial Circuit” and the “Greater Celestial Circuit” is blurred.

The practice corresponding to the Chanyou neidan method of (C) three years of suckling (rubu 乳哺) and (D) Nine Years of Facing the Wall (mianbi 面壁) cannot be confirmed in the Chapter 8 neidan method. The long and time-consuming training methods have been eliminated.

4.8. Flexibility of Practice Time in the Chapter 8 Neidan Method

After my discussion above, I hope it is generally clear that the Chapter 8 neidan method is based on the Chanyou neidan method. However, the Chapter 8 neidan method does not adopt everything from the Chanyou neidan method. Rather, it has a much more innovative aspect compared to the Chanyou neidan method.

5. Conclusions

As described above, it can be pointed out that there are several similarities between the Chapter 8 neidan method of JZ and the Chanyou neidan method: the similarity of the world view of Forward Movement and Backward Movement, the similarity of the order of the components of the method, the similarity of some special vocabulary, and the similarity of using the Spontaneous Zero Hour and the Precise Zero Hour as counter concepts. Furthermore, considering the fact that Pan Jingguan, a disciple of Zhu Yuanyu, was involved in the production of all three books, Cantongqi chanyou, Wuzhenpian chanyou, and JZ, we can conclude that the Chapter 8 neidan method is based on the Chanyou neidan method.

However, JZ did not simply inherit the Chanyou neidan method. JZ criticizes the practice of capturing the Great Medicine, which was a key component of the Chanyou neidan method. The authors of JZ probably disliked the idea of materializing the Great Medicine and replaced it with Inner Nature, or the Celestial Heart. Instead of insisting on the importance of the vitality of Vital Essence (jing 精) accumulated in the Lower Cinnabar Field and the kidney, the Chapter 8 neidan method was constructed as a neidan method centering on the Upper Cinnabar Field and the Celestial Heart in the head. Such a structure centering on the Upper Cinnabar Field and Celestial Heart seems to be based on the Method of the Circulation of the Light itself as the simplest form of the Quiet Sitting 静坐.

Another important feature of the Chapter 8 neidan method is that the length of time for practicing Lesser Celestial Circulation and Greater Celestial Circulation can be adjusted at will according to the practitioner’s experience and judgment. This simplification of the neidan method seems to have resulted in the elimination of the clear distinction between the Spontaneous Zero Hour and Precise Zero Hour that existed in the Chanyou neidan method.

Based on the above observations, we seem to be able to extract the important thought that Pan Jingguan and the other JZ authors were trying to create. On the one hand, the JZ authors rejected the Vital Force (ming 命)-centered technique that emphasizes the Lower Cinnabar Field and instead respected the Circulating Light method that emphasizes the Upper Cinnabar Field, that is, the Celestial Heart (tianxin), as the most central technique. On the other hand, they also represented the neidan practice, which was originally a long-term practice, as a simpler and more practical method that could be practiced in the daily life of a busy literati. In other words, the editors of JZ did not want to deny the neidan practice that Pan Jingguan himself had explored with his master Zhu Yuanyu but rather made changes to the theory and method so that the neidan practice could be more popular and more convenient in literati society.

The above is a summary of the Chapter 8 neidan method. However, the content of JZ is not entirely reducible to it. In Chapter 7 of JZ, the following words of Lüzu are recorded:

Circulation of the Light should be practiced systematically, but there is no need to abandon one’s daily duties. The ancients have said: “When events occur, respond to them appropriately; when objects present themselves, perceive them clearly”. You should handle things with the right attitude. If you do that, the Light will no longer be influenced and carried away by external things. This is the Circulation of the Light that remains free from fixation on images at every moment. You should practice in this way. Moreover, if you obtain a true image and circulate the Light accordingly, it will be even more effective—this is the highest state. In daily life, one should always return the Light inward in response to circumstances and avoid any attachment to self or others. This is the Circulation of the Light according to circumstances, the supreme and most mystical function. The best practice is to sit quietly for two to four hours early in the morning, when all distractions can be completely dispelled. In dealing with all matters, one should simply return the Light inward without interruption, even for a moment. If this is practiced diligently for two or three months, the Perfected of Heaven will surely verify and affirm one’s realization.

囘光循循然行去、不要廢棄正業。古人云、事來要應過、物來要識過。子以正念治事、卽光不爲物轉卽囘。此時時無相之囘光也。可行之。而況有真正着相回光乎。日用間、能刻刻隨事返照、不著一毫人我相、便是隨地囘光、此第一妙用。淸晨能遣盡諸緣、靜坐一二時最妙。凡應事接物、只用返（身）照法、便無一刻間斷。如此行之三月兩月、天上諸眞、必來印證矣。 (JZ: 13b–14a)

According to this passage, one should practice the Circulating Light method with a focused concentration in the early morning and continue this practice for two to three months, after which the Perfected will guarantee the results of one’s cultivation. In the Chapter 8 neidan method, the Circulating Light is certainly of great importance, but it is only a part of the overall practice and not the entirety of the method.

However, the content of Chapter 7 (quoted above) appears to describe a method in which Circulating Light is practiced independently as a stand-alone technique. This approach is even simpler than the Chapter 8 neidan method and is particularly suited for daily practice by literati. Moreover, it is explained as a form of cultivation that enables practitioners to respond appropriately to matters in their work—almost as if it possesses an effect similar to gewu zhizh 格物致知 (“the extension of knowledge through the investigation of things”) in Neo-Confucianism. It appears that this method was intended to function as a form of meditation that would establish the psychological foundation necessary for scholar-officials to efficiently handle their daily administrative duties.

From this perspective, JZ seems to have been shaped as a practical guide for stabilizing the daily lives of scholar-officials, while simultaneously extracting essential elements from the classical Neidan commentaries compiled by Zhu Yuanyu and Pan Jingguan. By reconstructing the editorial process of Zhu and Pan, we can observe how Daoist Inner Alchemy practices were refined into a form of cultivation that supported the daily professional lives of Confucian scholars. Furthermore, it is worth noting that this transformation—from a classical, commentary-based Neidan method to a Neidan practice adapted for daily use by literati—was facilitated through fuji (spirit-writing) attributed to Lüzu. According to Vincent Goosaert’s research, spirit-writing, which had developed within the Daoist ritual technique, or Daofa 道法 during the Song and Yuan dynasties, evolved significantly in the Ming and Qing periods as a practice embraced by literati (Goossaert 2022, 2024). JZ was precisely such a work, created in the early Qing period by literati who engaged deeply with Daoist Inner Alchemy practices through fuji and edited these teachings into a system of cultivation suited for their own daily lives. Fuji, in this context, provided the literati of the time with a means to discover their own inner legitimacy within the Daoist tradition.