The Metaphysics of the “Mandate of Heaven” (Tianming 天命): Ethical Interpretations in the Zisi School—An Examination Based on the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips

Abstract

By reconstructing the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven”, the Zisi School grounded the universality of Confucian ethics in the ontological stipulations of Heaven’s Way, bridging the intellectual gap between Confucius’s practical ethics and Mencius’s theory of mind-nature. Central to their framework is the proposition that “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind; and imparts inherent pattern to objects”, which constructs a generative chain from the Mandate of Heaven to the nature of objects and human nature. The School posited that the Heavenly Way endows all objects with inherent patterns, while human nature, derived from the Mandate of Heaven, harbors latent moral potential activated through edification. By dialectically reconciling the “differentiation between Heaven and humans” with the “unity of Heaven and humanity”, the Zisi School emphasized both the transcendent authority of the Mandate of Heaven and human moral agency, forming an “immanent yet transcendent” ethical paradigm. However, theoretical limitations persist, including ambiguities in the certainty of innate goodness due to the separation of Heaven and human nature, mind-body dualism that risks formalizing moral practice, and latent fatalism in their concept of mandate. Despite these unresolved tensions, the Zisi School’s metaphysics laid the groundwork for Mencius’s theory of innate goodness, Xunzi’s legalist emphasis on ritual, and Song-Ming Neo-Confucian discourses on “Heaven’s inherent pattern”. As a pivotal transitional phase in Pre-Qin Confucianism, the Zisi School highlights the interplay between metaphysical grounding and pragmatic adaptability, underscoring the enduring dynamism of Confucian ethics.

1. Introduction

Confucius’s (551–479 BCE) ethical teachings, while foundational, offered limited metaphysical elaboration on concepts such as “nature (性)”1 and “the Way of Heaven2 (天道)”3. This reticence contrasts with Mencius’s (c. 372–289 BCE) later, more developed system, which established a clearer logical chain between human morality and “Heaven” via “mind-nature”. This apparent conceptual leap has led scholars to perceive a “discontinuity” in early Confucian thought.

Pioneering modern scholarship, Hu Shi, for example, addressed this perceived gap by proposing that texts such as the Great Learning (Daxue 大學. n.d.) and the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong 中庸. n.d.)—traditionally associated with the Zisi School stemming from Confucius’s grandson Zisi—predated Mencius and Xunzi, thus forming an intellectual bridge (Hu 1997, pp. 202–3). The late 20th-century discovery of the Bamboo Texts of Guodian (Guodian Chumu Zhujian 郭店楚墓竹簡 n.d., hereafter abbreviated GDCMZJ), a significant portion of which is attributed by most scholars to the Zisi School4, has provided crucial textual evidence affirming the existence and intellectual activity of this intermediate phase (Jiang 1998; Liao 1998; Chen 1999; Li 1999; Pang 1999; B. Wang 2000; Wu 2013; Ding 2023). This period of Confucian development has also been explored in Western scholarship, with studies examining, for instance, the evolution of theories on human nature or the specific contributions of the Zisi School to Confucian philosophy (Goldin 2000; Scarpari 2003; Slingerland 2008; Holloway 2009; Meyer 2011; Cook 2012; Ames 2014; Hunter and Kern 2018).

Despite these advances, a full understanding of how the Zisi School specifically developed the metaphysical underpinnings for Confucian ethics, particularly through its interpretation of the “Mandate of Heaven”, warrants further investigation. This paper, therefore, focuses on the GDCMZJ, in conjunction with other received the Zisi School literature, to investigate how these scholars employed the metaphysics of “Heaven’s Mandate” to demonstrate the necessity and universality of Confucian ethics. This paper’s aim is to clarify this pivotal intermediate stage in the transition of Confucian thought. This paper will achieve this by first examining the Zisi School’s understanding of Heaven as inherited and developed, then analyzing their core proposition, “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind, and imparts inherent pattern to objects”, (“Thicket of Sayings 3” 語叢三 n.d., hereafter abbreviated YC 3, p. 209) subsequently discussing their views on human nature and the derivation of ethical norms, and finally, considering the theoretical limitations inherent in their system. This approach seeks to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the dynamism and coherence of early Confucian ethical thought.

2. Shangdi Is Perverse, Causing the People Below to Suffer Fatigue and Distress: The Origins of the “Mandate of Heaven” in the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips

The Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips’ understanding of Heaven, to some extent, inherited the ancient Chinese concept of the Mandate of Heaven and the thought of Confucius. Feng Youlan once categorized the concept of “Heaven” from Confucius and earlier into five types: the material Heaven, the ruling Heaven, the Heaven of Destiny, the natural Heaven, and the Heaven of Principles. Of course, from today’s perspective, there is some overlap between these five categories. From the perspective of human understanding of the objective world, the material and natural Heaven is likely what people encountered first. The Book of Changes (Yijing 易經 n.d.) states, “Being unenlightened and in darkness, first ascending to Heaven, then entering the earth”, juxtaposing Heaven and Earth to express the concept of space. The Book of Poetry (Shijing 詩經 n.d.) says, “How bright is the Milky Way, shining in the sky?”, describing the astronomical phenomenon of stars moving in the sky. In these quotations, people’s understanding of Heaven comes from direct observation of natural phenomena. During observation, various Heaven-related natural phenomena constantly affected people’s lives, and because these phenomena were often unpredictable, people developed awe and fear of Heaven. The Book of Documents records: “In autumn, there was a great harvest, but before it could be reaped, there was great thunder and lightning with wind, and all the crops were flattened, and the big trees were uprooted, and the people of the country were greatly frightened” (Shangshu 尚書 n.d.). The thunder, lightning, wind, and rain brought unpredictable and uncontrollable adverse effects to people’s agricultural lives, and people began to develop a religious emotion towards Heaven, thus generating the ruling Heaven and the Heaven of Destiny mentioned by Feng Youlan. Yijing states, “It is blessed by Heaven, and it is auspicious and without disadvantage”, showing that, in people’s view, Heaven has the ability to determine personal fortune. Shangshu states, “Heaven only sought the lord of people, and then greatly bestowed a clear and beautiful mandate on Cheng Tang (Reigned c. 1675–1646 BCE, founder of Shang Dynasty; dates vary), and punished and exterminated the Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–c. 1600 BCE)”, “I also dare not be at peace with Shangdi’s mandate, and will not forever forget the heavenly majesty exceeding my people”, and Shijing states, “There is a mandate from Heaven, mandating this King Wen (Reigned c. 1099–1050 BCE; dates vary), in Zhou and in the capital” and “Heaven protects you, and it is very solid”, indicating that Heaven can not only determine personal fortune but is even regarded as a personal Shangdi who dominates the rise and fall of the country. Crucially, Shijing already contains expressions that directly connect Heaven with the ethics and morality of human society. It states: “Heaven gives birth to the people, with objects and rules. The people’s constant nature is to love this beautiful virtue”. Heaven not only creates all objects but also stipulates the laws governing their operation, and “virtue” is precisely the law that Heaven stipulates for people, which is what Feng Youlan calls “the Heaven of Principles” (Feng 2014, p. 54).

Similar to the concept of “Heaven” in Shangshu, Yijing, and Shijing, the idea of “Heaven” in Confucius’s thought also possesses both dominion and rationality. In Confucius’s view, “Heaven” is a divine existence that transcends humans and can dictate human destiny. Confucius said: “Heaven has endowed me with virtue; what can Huan Tui do to me” (Lunyu 7:23.), and also said: “If Heaven intends to destroy this culture, those who die later will not be able to participate in this culture; if Heaven does not intend to destroy this culture, what can the people of Kuang do to me” (Lunyu 9:5.)? In Confucius’s thought, Heaven plays a decisive role in human affairs, while human actions cannot influence the will of Heaven. Of course, under the dominion of Heaven, humans are not in an absolutely passive state; people can recognize and follow the commands of Heaven, internalizing Heaven’s norms as their own behavioral guidelines, thereby empowering their actions through Heaven. Confucius said: “At fifty, I knew the Mandate of Heaven” (Lunyu 2:4.), indicating the knowability of the Mandate of Heaven, while “Great indeed was Yao (traditional dates c. 2356–2255 BCE) as a ruler! Majestic indeed! Only Heaven is great, and only Yao took it as his model” (Lunyu 8:19.), implying that humans have the ability to emulate Heaven and should act according to Heaven’s norms.

The Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips were composed after Confucius, and their ideas clearly connect with the concept of Heaven from Confucius and earlier times. Moreover, the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips directly quote expressions about “Shangdi” from ancient classics. The phrase “Shangdi is perverse causing the people below to suffer fatigue and distress” in the chapter “Ziyi” (“Black Robes” 緇衣 n.d., hereafter abbreviated ZY, p. 129) is quoted from the chapter “Daya” (“Major Odes” 大雅) of Shijing, and “In the past, Shangdi cut the ribbon and observed King Wen’s virtue, bestowing the great mandate upon him” is quoted from the chapter “Junshi” (“Lord Shi” 君奭) of Shangshu. The phrase “Shangdi favors you, do not have a divided heart” in the chapter “Wuxing” (“The Five Conducts” 五行 n.d., hereafter abbreviated WX, p. 151) is quoted from the chapter “Daya” of Shijing. In these examples, “Shangdi” and “Heaven” are synonymous, both referring to a personal deity that governs the fate of all objects in the world. On this basis, the concept of “Heaven” in the Confucian texts also inherits the ancient understanding of the unpredictability of the Mandate of Heaven. The chapter “Qiongda Yishi” (“Poverty or Success Is a Matter of Timing” 窮達以時 n.d., hereafter abbreviated QDYS) states: “Whether one meets success or not is determined by Heaven” (QDYS, p. 145), and also says, “If there is the right person but not the right time, even the virtuous will not succeed. If the time is right, what difficulty is there”? (QDYS, p. 145) This implies that a person’s future and fate are still influenced by “Heaven”. While acknowledging the Mandate of Heaven as the ultimate determinant of personal destiny, the Confucian texts, such as Confucius, oppose passively waiting for fate and advocate for actively aligning with the Mandate of Heaven through moral conduct, as expressed in “Whether one is good or not is up to oneself, success and failure depend on time; virtue and action are one/consistent, but praise and blame come from others” (QDYS, p. 145). Although some scholars have pointed out that “this kind of Heaven that determines success or failure is neither the theological Heaven with will and purpose of ancient times nor the natural Heaven that does not preserve Yao or destroy Jie (traditional reign c. 1728–1675 BCE), but a Heaven of fate, which, when applied to individuals, can also be called destiny, collectively known as the Mandate of Heaven” (Liang 2003, p. 65). However, from the above quotations, it can be seen that the “Heaven” in the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips has not completely shed the concept of the theological Heaven of ancient times.

The understanding of Heaven in the GDCMZJ originates from Confucius and the ancient concept of the Mandate of Heaven before him. The description of the relationship between the Mandate of Heaven and objects in the Slips is largely connected with early Confucian thought. Regarding the relationship between Heaven and objects, Confucius believed that Heaven is a silent promise to the existence of all objects in the world. Confucius said: “What does Heaven say? The four seasons proceed, and all objects are born. What does Heaven say” (Lunyu 17:19)? Although Heaven does not express its commands through words, the operation and generation of the four seasons and all objects are determined by the command of Heaven. At the same time, in Confucius’s view, Heaven and humanity are mutually knowable. Confucius’s statement “to learn below and reach above” (Lunyu 14:35) means that people can understand and align with the Way of Heaven through learning, while “He who knows me, is it not Heaven” (Lunyu 14:35) suggests that Heaven can understand human activities and thoughts. Therefore, people should revere the Mandate of Heaven, which is what Confucius referred to as “The gentleman has three fears: fear of the Mandate of Heaven, fear of great men, and fear of the words of sages” (Lunyu 16:8). The key point is that Confucius’s references to Heaven are consistently relational, situated within the context of human affairs and the phenomenal world, rather than being developed into an abstracted metaphysical system of the kind later pursued by thinkers such as those in the Zisi School. As some scholars have said: “Confucius always speaks of Heaven in terms of ‘relationality’; that is, he has no interest in a Heaven isolated from humanity, nor has he ever described Heaven in purely cosmological terms. Even when considering Heaven as ‘nature,’ Confucius still affirms the special relationship between Heaven and humanity” (Fu 2010, p. 90). Of course, the relationality between Heaven and humanity does not mean that Heaven and humanity are the same kind of existence. Confucius’s advocacy of “revering the Mandate of Heaven” indicates that he was clearly aware that Heaven is independent of humanity and is not subject to human will, a point more clearly expressed in the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips.

The Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips state: “There is Heaven, and there are humans, and there are distinctions between Heaven and humans. By discerning the distinctions between Heaven and humans, one understands their respective ways of moving/functioning” (QDYS, p. 145), clearly proposing that “there are distinctions between Heaven and humans”, indicating that the roles of Heaven and humans are different. More specifically, Heaven determines human fate, while humans can decide their own moral conduct. As it is said: “Whether one encounters success or not is determined by Heaven. Success and failure depend on time; virtue and action are one/consistent. Therefore, the gentleman focuses on self-reflection” (QDYS, p. 145). More importantly, the Chu Bamboo Slips link human moral conduct with “knowing the Mandate of Heaven”: “By knowing what Heaven does and what humans do, one then knows the Way. Knowing the Way, one then knows the Mandate” (“Thicket of Sayings 1” 語叢一 n.d., hereafter abbreviated YC 1, p. 194). The Chu Bamboo Slips define the understanding of the actions of Heaven and humans as the premise of “knowing the Way”, and humans can “know the Mandate of Heaven” through behavior that accords with the Way. This is similar to what Confucius said about “learning from below and reaching above”, reflecting the active role humans have in their interaction with Heaven.

3. Heaven’s Mold Imparts Form to Mankind and Imparts to Objects Their Inherent Pattern: Connecting the Way of Heaven, the Nature of Objects, and Human Nature

The proposition “Heaven’s mold imparts form to Mankind; and imparts to objects Their inherent pattern” (YC 3, p. 209) in the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips serves as both an early Confucian metaphysical interpretation of the essence of “Heaven” and a systematic reconstruction of the relationship between the Mandate of Heaven and human nature. This proposition centers on “Heaven” and, through the dual meanings of “form” and “inherent pattern” (li 理)5, constructs a complete chain from cosmic genesis to ethical practice. Its thought inherits the genes of the ancient Mandate of Heaven concept and creatively transforms it based on Confucius’s doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven, providing a crucial theoretical foundation for the emergence of Mencius’s theory of mind and nature.

3.1. Heaven’s Mold Imparts Form to Mankind: The Introduction Process of Cosmology—View of Humanity

The metaphysical system of the Zisi School considers “Heaven” as the ultimate origin, constructing a logical chain from the creation of the universe to human nature and ethics. The opening of the “Doctrine of the Mean” states: “The Mandate of Heaven is called nature; to follow nature is called the Way; to cultivate the Way is called edification”, incorporating the Way of Heaven, human nature, and edification into the same framework, establishing the fundamental stipulation of the Mandate of Heaven on all objects. Some scholars have pointed out that the idea of “The Mandate of Heaven is called nature” in the Doctrine of the Mean already exists in the GDCMZJ, “only the expression is not yet refined, a sentence is said in three: there is Heaven, there is the mandate, nature emerges from the mandate, the mandate descends from Heaven” (Pang 1998, p. 91). The GDCMZJ YC 1 further elaborates:

All objects arise from non-being. There is Heaven and its Mandate; there are objects and their names. Heaven generates ethical order; humans generate their beginnings. With Mandate comes measure, with names comes order; thus, ethical relationships emerge. With Earth comes form, with exhaustion comes abundance; thus, substance is established. With life comes knowledge; thus, preferences and aversions arise. With objects, order, and purpose comes teaching; thus, education is born. Heaven holds the Mandate, and Earth bears form; Objects possess appearance, and families hold names. Through objects and their forms, exhaustion and abundance, beauty and goodness manifest. Benevolence and wisdom, righteousness and propriety, sagehood and virtue—all are born.6

(YC 1, p. 193)

It emphasizes that “Heaven” is not only the creator of all objects but also, through “mandate”, endows all objects with order and meaning. This process of creation is not a mechanical physical movement but a natural manifestation of the Way of Heaven (Ding 2021a).

Since the laws governing the creation and operation of all objects are prescribed by “Heaven”, the order of human society is naturally no exception. This is the proposition of “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind” put forward by the Zisi School. YC 3 states: “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind, and imparts inherent pattern to objects”, (YC 3, p. 209), indicating that Heaven not only creates humanity but also regulates the existence of humans and all objects through “inherent pattern”. Here, “form” implies both “shaping” and “archetype”, suggesting that human nature and the nature of objects both originate from the same Way of Heaven. This theory of the Zisi School builds upon and further systematizes intuitions present in Confucius’s understanding of “Heaven”, particularly regarding its generative and ordering role, though Confucius himself did not articulate a concept such as “Heaven’s Form” with such metaphysical explicitness. Although Confucius did not explicitly mention “Heaven’s Form”, his statement, “What does Heaven say? The four seasons proceed, and all objects are born”, already implies the concept of Heaven governing all objects in a “silent” manner. The GDCMZJ further systematizes this idea, as “Chengzhi Wenzhi” states: “Heaven bestows the Great Constant to order human relations” (“Attaining Through Understanding” 成之聞之 n.d., hereafter abbreviated CZWZ, p. 168), where “Great Constant” refers to the universal laws bestowed by the Way of Heaven, which are both the laws governing the operation of the four seasons and all objects and the root of the order of human relations. Heaven, through “bestowing constants”, allows all objects to obtain their inherent pattern, and human relations must also be established according to this “constant”. As Liang Tao said: “The significance of CZWZ in the history of Confucianism lies in its argumentation of Confucius’s benevolence, especially the way of loyalty and reciprocity, from an external transcendental perspective, elevating loyalty and reciprocity to the height of the Mandate of Heaven, providing a metaphysical basis for Confucian moral governance and personal example. At the same time, since CZWZ argues from an external transcendental perspective, it also highlights the difference between sages and the mean person, relying on sages to maintain the political order of the ‘Great Constant’ or ‘Heavenly Constant’” (Liang 2021, p. 83). The Zisi School, through the concept of “tianxing”, connects cosmology and human nature theory, providing a metaphysical basis for ethical norms. In other words, human moral attributes do not exist in isolation but are a concrete manifestation of the Way of Heaven in human nature, and the laws governing the operation of all objects (nature of objects) are also isomorphic with the Way of Heaven.

3.2. Imparts Inherent Pattern to Objects: The Ontological Source of Human Nature

The phrase “Imparts inherent pattern to objects” originates from the GDCMZJ YC 3, and together with “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind”, constitutes the core propositions of the Zisi School’s metaphysics of the Mandate of Heaven. The so-called “inherent pattern” refers to Heaven regulating all objects through “li”, making the nature of objects the manifestation of the Mandate of Heaven in concrete existence. The key to this proposition lies in revealing the intermediary role of the “nature of objects”: it is both the carrier through which the Mandate of Heaven permeates the real world and the bridge for human nature to recognize and practice the Way of Heaven.

From the perspective of generative logic, “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind” emphasizes Heaven as the archetype and origin of all objects, while “imparts inherent pattern to objects” further explains that the Mandate of Heaven does not intervene in the human world through abstract will directly, but rather achieves its dominion by endowing all objects with inherent laws (“li”) (Zhang 2023). In this sense, the nature of objects becomes the concretization of the Mandate of Heaven—it is not an isolated physical attribute of Heaven but the dynamic unfolding of the Mandate of Heaven in time and space.

The intermediary nature of the nature of objects is particularly prominent in the realm of human nature. YC 1 states, “Those with vital energy all have joy and anger” (YC 1, p. 195). Here, “vital energy” is both the material basis of life (nature of objects) and the carrier of emotions and virtue (human nature). As the phrase “when it becomes manifest externally, it is drawn forth by objects” (“Nature Emerges from Mandate” 性自命出 n.d., hereafter abbreviated XZMC, p. 179) suggests, although the roots of emotions such as joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure lie in the “inherent pattern” (li) endowed by Heaven’s Mandate, their actual arousal depends on external stimuli. Taking “vital energy” as an example, human physiological activities are governed by natural laws, while emotional responses imply the emergence of moral potential. The Zisi School, through the chain of “Nature Emerges from Mandate, Mandate Descends from Heaven” (XZMC, p. 179), unifies this natural attribute and moral attribute under the Mandate of Heaven: the emotional capacity and ethical inclination in human nature all originate from the “li” bestowed by Heaven. In other words, the nature of objects is both the material premise of human nature and the medium through which the Mandate of Heaven transforms into ethics.

This intermediary role specifically manifests in two functions: first, the manifestation of the Mandate of Heaven. The nature of objects, through natural laws, transforms the abstract Mandate of Heaven into observable and followable concrete rules. YC 1 states, “There is Heaven and its Mandate; there are objects and their names”. The Mandate of Heaven establishes the existential meaning for all objects through “names”, and the order that “names” correspond to, is precisely what the nature of objects carries. Second, it triggers human nature. External objects stimulate the senses and emotions, guiding human nature from potential to reality. XZMC states, “Although people have nature, the mind lacks a fixed will, and it waits for objects to act before it does” (XZMC, p. 179), indicating that the moral inclinations within human nature rely on external objects to be stimulated before they can manifest.

The Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips establish a naturalistic foundation for Confucian ethics through the proposition of “imparts inherent pattern to objects”. The nature of objects serves as a link between the Mandate of Heaven and human nature, making “reverence for the Mandate of Heaven” not merely a religious awe but a rational practice: by observing natural laws and cultivating mind and nature, individuals align their behavior with the Way of Heaven. It is noteworthy that the ontology of the Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips is distinctly practice-oriented. Although the Way of Heaven transcends specific phenomena, it is not an esoteric unknown. The chapter WX proposes that “the sage manifests internally, which is called virtuous conduct” (WX, p. 149), suggesting that by internalizing the five virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sagacity, the “Way of Heaven” can be manifested as the “Way of Humanity”. This internal manifestation of virtue cultivation is essentially a return to the ontological essence of the Mandate of Heaven. In other words, human moral attributes do not exist in isolation but are concrete manifestations of the Way of Heaven within human nature, and the operational laws of all objects (nature of objects) are isomorphic with the Way of Heaven (Ge 2020). This generative chain of “Heaven—Mandate—Nature” provides ontological support for Confucian ethics.

3.3. The Development of the View of Humanity and the Dialectic of the Relationship Between Heaven and Humanity

The Guodian Confucian Bamboo Slips ultimately direct cosmology and ontology towards the ethical practice of the view of humanity, constructing a complete system that connects the metaphysical with reality. This relationship between Heaven and humanity exhibits profound dialectical characteristics (Yen 2001). On the one hand, as mentioned earlier, chapter QDYS explicitly states, “there are distinctions between Heaven and humans”, with the core being to define the boundary of duties between Heaven and humans. Heaven’s duty lies in governing human encounters (“whether one meets with success or not is determined by Heaven”), such as the orderly progression of the seasons and the birth and death of all objects, which are beyond human control, whereas human duty lies in responding to the Mandate of Heaven through moral practice (“moral conduct is one”), such as in facing success and failure, honor and disgrace, a gentleman must “focus on self-reflection”, maintaining the purity of virtue through introspection and cultivation. This “distinction” does not sever the connection between Heaven and humanity but, by clarifying their respective responsibilities, opens up space for human subjectivity (Wei 2017).

However, the proposition “there are distinctions between Heaven and humans” does not negate the possibility of “the unity of Heaven and humanity”. The chapter on CZWZ proposes that “a gentleman governs human relations to align with heavenly virtue” (CZWZ, p. 168). The chapter “Liu de” (“The Six Virtues” 六德 n.d., hereafter abbreviated LD, pp. 187–89) further establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the six ethical relationships such as ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife with virtues such as sagehood, wisdom, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness (the “Six Virtues”), thereby granting the order of human relations the legitimacy of the Way of Heaven. “Sagehood” corresponds to the position of ruler and minister, and “benevolence” corresponds to the affection between father and son, indicating that specific social roles and moral requirements all originate from the Mandate of Heaven’s unified stipulation of human nature and the nature of objects.

At the same time, the chapter WX regards “sage” as the highest realm, believing that a sage’s moral conduct can reach the Heavenly Principle: “A sage knows the Way of Heaven” (WX, p. 150). Achieving this realm does not rely on mystical experiences but is gradually realized through the cultivation of virtue “shaped within” (WX, p. 149). Virtues such as benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom need to be internalized into the structure of mind and nature, then externally manifested as behavior in accordance with the Way of Heaven, allowing an individual’s moral practice to resonate with the cosmic order, ultimately achieving the state of “bright below, illustrious above” (WX, p. 150), where Heaven, Earth, and humanity are interconnected. This realm seems similar to the religious experience described in Discourses of the States (Guoyu 國語 n.d.), where shamans “can illuminate far and wide, and their brightness can shine upon it”, but in essence, it is fundamentally different: shamans rely on external revelations of “divine enlightenment” (Guoyu 國語 n.d., “Chuyu I” 楚語上), while the “sage” of the Zisi School emphasizes understanding and aligning with the Way of Heaven through internal cultivation. In this process, “the unity of Heaven and humanity” does not eliminate the distinctions between Heaven and humans but reconciles the tension between the metaphysical and the real through moral practice—the transcendence of Heaven provides the value source for human nature, while human agency imparts practical significance to the Way of Heaven. This means that the Zisi School acknowledges the absolute authority of Heaven while emphasizing that through internal cultivation, humans can “participate in and assist the transformation and nurturing of Heaven and Earth”. This mode of thinking becomes the fundamental characteristic that distinguishes Confucian ethics from religious theology.

The Zisi School’s view of humanity is grounded in the Mandate of Heaven, with human nature serving as the link and edification as the path, integrating the creation of the universe, ontological stipulations, and ethical practice into a unified whole. It delineates the responsibilities of Heaven and humans through “there are distinctions between Heaven and humans”, and endows moral practice with ultimate significance through “the unity of Heaven and humanity”. This approach avoids the mystification of the Mandate of Heaven while providing solid metaphysical support for the order of human relations. This dialectical thinking not only inherits Confucius’s reverence for the Mandate of Heaven and pragmatic approach to practicing benevolence but also inspires the differentiation between Mencius’s theory of mind and nature and Xunzi’s study of rites and laws, becoming a crucial pivot in the transition of Pre-Qin Confucianism from the “Way of Heaven” to the “view of humanity”.

4. The Gentleman Governs Human Relations to Align with Heavenly Virtue: Inferring Ethical Norms from the Potential Goodness of Human Nature

The Zisi School posits that human nature, originating from the Mandate of Heaven, is universally shared. While not explicitly labeling this nature as inherently “good” or “evil” in a simplistic sense, the school implies a Heaven-endowed potential for goodness. Texts such as XZMC suggest that “nature emerges from the mandate, the mandate descends from Heaven”, linking human nature to a transcendent source. However, this inherent potential, characterized by natural emotional responses such as “joy, anger, sorrow, and sadness”, requires interaction with the external world and, crucially, moral edification to be cultivated into demonstrable virtue. It is from this understanding of a universally endowed yet malleable and educable human nature that the Zisi School proceeds to derive the necessity and content of ethical norms, aiming to align human conduct with the Heavenly Way.

4.1. Mind and Nature—Virtue: The Ethicalization of Emotions and the Formation of Norms

The ethical framework of the Zisi School begins with the premise that “emotions arise from human nature”, unveiling the dynamic process by which natural emotions transform into ethical virtues. This process is not merely a matter of moral preaching but is demonstrated through specific emotional chains and the generation of norms, illustrating the path of human nature’s elevation from instinct to morality. “Thicket of Sayings 2” meticulously outlines the derivative relationship between emotions and virtue: “love arises from nature, affection arises from love, loyalty arises from affection” (“Thicket of Sayings 2” 語叢二 n.d., hereafter abbreviated YC 2, p. 203), deriving family ethics (affection) from blood-related love, and then extending to broader political ethics, particularly loyalty, which often carries strong connotations of duty towards the state or ruler in traditional contexts. The core logic of this chain is that ethical norms are not abstract rules external to human nature but are reasonable extensions and rational norms based on natural emotions (Y. Wang 2008).

Using the chain of “Love—Affection—Loyalty” as an example, the initial “Love” is a natural emotion inherent in human nature, manifesting as an instinctive attachment to family members. When this emotion is socialized into “Affection” through interactions within family relationships, it forms the basic norms of family ethics. Further extending to social relationships such as those between rulers, ministers, and friends, “Affection” is elevated to “Loyalty”, which signifies adherence to duties and commitments. This process reflects the ethical deduction logic of the Zisi School, which progresses “from the near to the distant”, starting from the closest kinship emotions, gradually constructing a complex social and moral system. As Dai Zhaoguo pointed out, both XZMC and YC assert that emotions arise from nature, affirming that emotions are based on nature and nature is manifested and utilized through emotions. This connects the nature endowed by the Mandate of Heaven with the human way of following emotions, further developing Confucius’s theory of mind and nature (Dai 2002).

A deeper analysis of the logical chain in YC 2: “Desire arises from nature, deliberation arises from desire, tranquility arises from deliberation” (YC 2, p. 203), reveals how desire can be sublimated into virtue through rational restraint. “Desire”, as an instinct of human nature, if left unchecked, may lead to greed and chaos; however, through the intervention of “deliberation” (rational thinking), individuals can weigh pros and cons, restrain desires, and ultimately achieve peace of mind and nature. This transformation from instinct to virtue reflects the profound insight of the Zisi School into the complexity of human nature: ethical cultivation does not deny natural desires but guides them into the moral path through rationality.

4.2. Virtue—Moral Conduct: The Unity of Inner Cultivation and Social Role

The ethical practice of the Zisi School emphasizes that virtue must manifest as actual moral conduct through specific actions. This process requires both the cultivation of the inner mind and nature and a close connection with social roles. The WX chapter proposes that “when benevolence is manifested internally, it is called virtuous conduct; when not manifested internally, it is mere conduct” (WX, p. 149), clearly distinguishing the essential difference between “virtuous conduct” and “conduct”. The so-called “manifested internally” means that virtues such as benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom must be internalized as part of the mind and nature structure, becoming core traits of one’s character, rather than merely occasional external behaviors (Suenaga and Sato 2021). “Benevolence manifested internally” is not just an occasional act of charity towards others but a state of character rooted in the heart of compassion—a natural expression of sympathy and assistance in the face of others’ suffering rather than a utilitarian moral performance. This internalized virtue endows ethical practice with stability and universality, as stated in XZMC: “The gentleman holds firm in his will, must have a broad heart, and his words must be trustworthy” (XZMC, p. 181), meaning that through steadfastness of will and consistency of words and actions, virtue permeates all aspects of daily life.

The Zisi School’s definition of moral conduct not only focuses on individual cultivation but also emphasizes its dynamic correspondence with social roles. The LD chapter links the six virtues of “sagacity, wisdom, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness” with the “six positions” of ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, constructing a role-based ethical system (Chen 2018). A ruler must use “sagacity” to discern the Way of Heaven and formulate policies in accordance with the Heavenly Principle; a minister must use “loyalty” to diligently fulfill duties and assist the ruler in implementing benevolent governance; a father must use “benevolence” to nurture children, embodying love and responsibility; a son must use “righteousness” to honor parents, balancing emotions and ritual propriety; a friend must use “trustworthiness” to uphold promises and maintain interpersonal trust. This role-based ethics is not a rigid dogma but requires individuals to flexibly apply virtue in specific contexts. Using the relationship between ruler and minister as an example, the LD chapter requires ministers to be “loyal”, but this loyalty is not blind obedience; a minister’s loyalty should be guided by the principle of “righteousness”. If a ruler deviates from the Way of Heaven, ministers should advise and even correct based on “righteousness”, rather than foolishly conforming. This dynamic balance is already reflected in Confucius’s thought of “serving the ruler with the Way, and stopping if it is not possible” (Lunyu 11:24). The Zisi School elevates this to a metaphysical level through the concept of “virtuous conduct”: true loyalty (virtuous conduct) requires internalizing the principle of “righteousness”, ensuring actions meet role requirements without violating the Mandate of Heaven (Zhu 2017). The Zisi School also externalizes virtue into operable moral conduct standards through specific behavioral norms. XZMC details the demeanor and mindset of a gentleman in different situations: the etiquette for guests requires “a demeanor of utmost respect”, and the etiquette for sacrifices requires “a demeanor of utmost reverence” (XZMC, p. 181), expressing awe for the Mandate of Heaven. These norms are not formalistic demands but internalize virtue through external rituals.

4.3. Moral Conduct—Way of Heaven: The Ultimate Destination of Ethical Practice

The ultimate goal of ethical practice in the Zisi School is to achieve complete alignment between moral conduct and the Way of Heaven. Zhongyong states: “The Mandate of Heaven is called nature; to follow nature is called the Way; to cultivate the Way is called teaching”, unifying individual cultivation with the principles of the Mandate of Heaven within the framework of the “Way” (Tsai 2014). This process is manifested in three stages: first is “knowing the Mandate”, which involves understanding the Way of Heaven through learning and practice; second is “harmonizing virtue”, which is the perfection of human conduct through the internal harmony of virtues; finally, “communing with Heaven”, where moral conduct and the Way of Heaven naturally become one, reaching the sage’s state of “following the desires of the heart without transgressing the norm”.

The CZWZ emphasizes that “the Gentleman governs Human Relations to align with Heavenly Virtue”, suggesting that the order of Human Relations is a projection of the Way of Heaven in human society. “Be cautious of the Six Positions, to worship the Heavenly Constant” (CZWZ, p. 168) requires that the Ruler and Minister, Father, and Son, each maintain their positions, practicing Virtue through fulfilling their duties, ultimately achieving the cosmic harmony of “Heaven and Earth are in their places, and All things are nurtured” (Zhongyong 中庸 n.d.). This thought of “Human Way is the Way of Heaven” not only endows Ethical Practice with sanctity but also avoids abstraction through specific norms.

The Zisi School, through the proposition “The Gentleman governs Human Relations to align with Heavenly Virtue”, constructed a comprehensive ethical system that extends from Mind and Nature to the Way of Heaven and from the individual to society. It uses “emotion” as an intermediary to connect the Mandate of Heaven and Human Nature, employs “Virtuous Conduct” to integrate internal cultivation with external behavior, and uses “Cautious Solitude” to bridge the tension between the metaphysical and the real. This approach not only inherits the practical wisdom of Confucius’s “study of benevolence” but also provides a theoretical prototype for Mencius’s “exhausting the mind to understand nature”.

5. Conclusions

The metaphysical system of the “Mandate of Heaven” from the Zisi School serves as a crucial link in the evolution of Confucian thought between Confucius and Mencius. Through the proposition of “Heaven’s mold imparts form to mankind; and imparts inherent pattern to objects”, the Zisi School constructs a unified chain of the Way of Heaven, the nature of objects, and human nature, elevating the universality of ethical norms to the ontological stipulation of the Mandate of Heaven. This logic of “Heaven—Mandate—Nature” connects the creation of the universe with ethical practice, providing transcendent justification for virtues such as “benevolence” and “righteousness”. It also reconciles the transcendence of Heaven with human subjectivity through the dialectical thinking of “There are distinctions between Heaven and humans” and “The Unity of Heaven and Humanity”, laying the foundation for the Confucian paradigm of “immanent yet transcendent”.

By abstracting Confucian ethics from specific contexts through the metaphysics of the Mandate of Heaven, the Zisi School endowed them with universality and eternity, providing a paradigm of metaphysical speculation for later Confucians. Mencius perfected the theory of Innate Goodness with the “Four Beginnings”, Xunzi emphasized the construction of rites and laws through the “Transformation of Nature and Initiation of Artifice”, and even the Song-Ming Neo-Confucian reinterpretation of “Heavenly Principle” and “Mind and Nature” can be seen as a critical inheritance of the limitations of the Zisi School. The intellectual legacy of the Zisi School not only highlights the complex tension in the transition of Pre-Qin Confucianism from the “Way of Heaven” to the “Way of Man”, but also enlightens us: the vitality of an ethical system lies both in the solidity of its metaphysical foundation and in its flexible response to real-world situations. This balance of dual dimensions remains a core proposition of Confucian philosophy and even human moral practice to this day.