“Circulations” and Self-Transcendence: A Comparative Study of Emerson and Zhuangzi

Abstract

In this article, I begin with the topic of “circulations”, conducting a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences in Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s philosophies regarding “circulations” as the mode of cosmic generation and operation, as well as the relationship between “circulations” and self-transcendence. Furthermore, I explore the practical paths to achieve self-transcendence via circulations based on these two aspects. Specifically, both Emerson and Zhuangzi regard “circulations” as the fundamental way of cosmic generation and operation. However, Emerson emphasizes the directionality of “circulations”, where God generates all things through “emanation”, and all things return to God through “ascent”. In contrast, Zhuangzi emphasizes the characteristics of the Dao in generating all things, including its “cyclic repetition” (xun huan wang fu 循环往复) and “creating myriad forms” (zhi qi wan shu 制器万殊). The “Dao” that generates these “circulations” itself does not possess morality or divinity. Both of them believe that individuals can achieve self-transcendence by aligning with “circulations”. Regarding the specific practical paths, Emerson suggests that we can return to God through revelation, specifically via nature, poets, art, and vocation. On the other hand, Zhuangzi believes that we can achieve unity with the Dao by “following the Dao”, specifically through the life-nurturing method of “following the Du as a principle” (yuan du yi wei jing 缘督以为经) and the spiritual cultivation methods of “emptiness of mind-heart and selflessness” (xinzhai 心斋) and “sitting in oblivion” (zuowang 坐忘).

1. Introduction

Western traditional culture tends to deny the reality of change and seeks an eternal arche behind transient existence. The ontological inequality between the transcendent source of order and the world it regulates—assuming that eternal existence is more real than change—has resulted in the dualistic categories we are familiar with, such as the distinctions between God/world and reality/appearance. In these dichotomies, the former always holds a superior position, existing independently of and interpreting the latter, while remaining itself beyond interpretation by the latter (Ames 2018, pp. 21–22). Such thinking can be traced from Plato’s “eidos” to the Christian “God” and can also be observed in the transcendentalist philosophy of the American thinker Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882).

In contrast, Chinese culture more prominently exemplifies correlative thinking1. Unlike the causal–logical thinking dominant in Western culture, correlative thinking is primarily “horizontal”, as it examines various specific and experiential phenomena in relation to one another without resorting to a supramundane dimension. This approach thus achieves true ontological equality (Ames 2006, pp. 174–75; Hall and Ames 2005, p. 286). Correlative thinking dominated classical Chinese thought, and this characteristic is fully reflected in Daoist writings. Against this backdrop, we can compare the thoughts of Emerson and Zhuangzi.

In both Chinese and Western philosophy, the concept of “circulations” is an important theme, often associated with the way the cosmos is generated and operates. Similarly, self-transcendence is a significant topic, closely related to human spiritual well-being. As thinkers who have garnered substantial academic attention and are frequently subject to comparative studies, Emerson and Zhuangzi both repeatedly address the theme of “circulations” in their works. Moreover, both philosophers focus on the idea of self-transcendence. This highlights the importance of “circulations” and “self-transcendence” in their philosophies. However, current academic studies on the concept of “circulations” in the thoughts of Emerson and Zhuangzi remain scarce2 (Punzi 2010; Stark 2010; Stokes 2015; Langone 2020; Wu 2011, 2018; etc.). I have yet to identify any literature that explores the relationship between “circulations” and “self-transcendence” or examines their cyclical philosophies within the framework of comparative philosophy. Against this backdrop, this paper seeks to address this gap in research.

Overall, this paper attempts to answer the following questions: How is the concept of “circulations” reflected in the texts of Emerson and Zhuangzi, and how is it related to the generation and operation of the cosmos? How are “circulations” connected to self-transcendence, and is it feasible to achieve self-transcendence through “circulations”? What pathways do Emerson and Zhuangzi provide in their texts for achieving self-transcendence through “circulations”?

Before introducing the structure of this paper, I would like to first examine the concepts of “circulations” and “self-transcendence”. These two terms will be used within the following scope in this study.

The topic of “circulations” has a long history and often appears in the form of a circle, with its meaning evolving over time. In The Breaking of the Circle, Marjorie Hope Nicholson traces the development of the circle through the major periods of Western thought—classical, post Renaissance, and modern—claiming that the Enlightenment theorization of the world as a mechanism broke what was considered, up through the Renaissance, as the Circle of Perfection: the conception of a circle as a perfect, unified, finite whole that brought together human, world, and God as one (Nicholson 1960). In Emerson’s writings, the topic of “circulations” often appears in terms such as “circles”, “circulations”, “circular”, and “circuit” (Emerson 1996; pp. 403, 408, 412, 414, etc.). For convenience, I will uniformly use the term “circulations” to refer to its noun meaning throughout the text, except in direct quotations. In summary, Emerson uses “circulations” to elucidate the path by which God creates all things and how all things achieve self-transcendence and return to God. This will be explained in detail in subsequent sections of this paper.

In China, the topic of “circulations” has also existed for a long time. The Zhouyi 周易3 is essentially a book about circulations; its sixty-four hexagrams (gua 卦) each represent a small cycle, and together they form a larger cycle based on time (Wu 2018). Laozi’s thoughts are inherited from the Zhouyi, and his writing Daodejing 道德经 is rich with ideas of circulations: “Empty your mind of all thoughts. Let your heart be at peace. Watch the turmoil of beings, but contemplate their return. Each separate being in the universe returns to the common source”4 (Chapter 16). “Something is formed in the chaos, which existed before heaven and earth. It is quiet and profound. It stands alone and alters not. It revolves eternally without exhaustion” (Chapter 25). “Reversal is the movement of the Dao” (Chapter 40). Robin R. Wang believes that “Reversal” (fan 反) is an enduring theme in Chinese thought, especially in the Daodejing. It evokes the image of a circle, or more precisely, a spiral movement that continues perpetually in a circular form (Wang 2012, p. 11). By the time of Zhuangzi, although he did not explicitly use the term “circulations”, the concept is reflected through terms like tianjun 天钧in many writings, such as “On Viewing Things Equally” (qiwulun 齐物论), “Gengsang Chu” 庚桑楚, and “Imputed Words” (yuyan寓言). I will elaborate on this in the second part.

David L. Hall and Roger T. Ames define the concept of transcendence in their book Thinking through Confucius: “a principle, A, is transcendent with respect to that, B, which it serves as principle if the meaning or import of B cannot be fully analyzed and explained without recourse to A, but the reverse is not true“ (Hall and Ames 1987, p. 13). Regarding self-transcendence, I agree with Gao Shan’s adoption of John Nolt’s definition, as John Nolt places particular emphasis on the relationship between self-transcendence and nature: “self-transcendence is to be understood as follows: a person (subject) is self-transcendent toward an object if and only if that object is distinct from her and she values its good as an end” (Gao 2023; John Nolt 2010, p. 163). This definition is particularly relevant because the thoughts of both Emerson and Zhuangzi are closely connected to nature.

This article aims to focus on the topic of “circulations” thought, analyzing the similarities and differences between Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s philosophies regarding “circulations” as a mode of cosmic generation and operation, the relationship between “circulations” and self-transcendence, and discovering the practical paths through which they achieve self-transcendence via “circulations” in their texts. Specifically, in the first part, I will discuss the key topics of “circulations” and “self-transcendence”. In the second part, I will analyze the relationship between the proposition of “circulations” and cosmic generation and operation from two aspects: “circulations” and God and “circulations” and tianjun, highlighting the different emphases in Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s texts. In the third part, I will explore the theoretical possibilities of achieving self-transcendence through “circulations” by examining “going with not against the divine flow” in Emerson’s work and “following the Dao 顺道而为” in Zhuangzi’s philosophy. Finally, based on the previous research, I will further uncover the practical paths for achieving self-transcendence through “circulations” as presented in Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s writings. In Emerson, we can return to God through revelation, with specific practical paths including nature, poets, art, and vocation. In Zhuangzi, we can achieve “unity with Dao 与道同一” through “following the Dao”, specifically using methods such as nurturing life through “following the Du as a principle” and spiritual practices like “xinzhai” (emptiness of mind-heart and selflessness) and “zuowang” (sitting in oblivion).

2. “Circulations” and the Creation of the Cosmos

Before discussing the relationship between “circulations” and self-transcendence in the texts of Emerson and Zhuangzi, I would like to first explore the connection between “circulations” and the creation of the cosmos as depicted in their writings. This is because this article focuses on how individuals within the cycle can achieve self-transcendence. The reason why individuals are situated within a cycle is that, in both Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s texts, “circulations” is related to the way the cosmos is generated and operates. Therefore, I want to start by discussing the origin of “circulations” and then move on to discuss the possibilities and practical paths for individuals to conform to the cycle and achieve self-transcendence.

In Emerson’s metaphysical framework, “circulations” can be understood as the process where God generates all things through an overflow from high to low, from completeness to incompleteness, with all things subsequently “going with not against the divine flow” and returning to God. This process also represents the generation and operation of the cosmos. In Zhuangzi, “circulations” can be explained through the concept of tianjun, which describes the way the Dao transforms into myriad things. It exhibits characteristics such as “cyclic repetition” and “creating myriad form”. The following sections will elaborate on these points separately.

2.1. “Circulations” and God

In “Nature”, Emerson writes, “Three problems are put by nature to the mind; What is matter? Whence is it? and Where to?” (Emerson 1996, p. 40). His answers to these three questions elucidate the relationship between “circulations” and the creation and operation of the cosmos.

Firstly, Emerson believes that matter is a symbol of God. Here, it is necessary to provide an explanation of “God” as referenced in Emerson’s text. Emerson believed that God possesses impersonality and is a form of causa causarum (Urbas 2021, p. 216). In Emerson’s writings, “God” often appears under terms such as reason, spirit, oversoul, final cause, and efficient nature (Gao 2023). How does one perceive God? According to Emerson, it is through nature. In “Nature”, Emerson writes, “Nature is a sea of forms radically alike and even unique” and “A single object is only so far beautiful as it suggests this universal grace” (Emerson 1996, p. 19). In “The Poet”, he states, “everything in nature answers to a moral power” (Emerson 1996, p. 453). In Emerson’s philosophy, nature holds a significant position because it is seen as symbolic nature. As details and “the many”, it reflects the presence of God in every aspect. Here, Emerson draws from Plato’s ideas; his view of nature shares common ground with Plato’s Theory of Forms. In Phaedo, Plato argues that everything in the material world is merely a shadow of some eternal and perfect form. These forms exist independently in a realm beyond sensory perception and are the source of concrete individual things, not dependent on them. Individuals living in the material world can perceive these forms by discovering the generalities within particular objects. For instance, in The Symposium, Plato suggests that people can first recognize beauty in physical bodies, then realize that the beauty of the soul far surpasses that of the body. Through continuous pursuit, they discover knowledge focused on beauty and ultimately gaze upon the highest form of beauty—beauty itself—and become fully unified with it. This vision of beauty itself represents the most worthwhile stage of human life (Plato 2015).

Similarly, for Emerson, individuals can perceive an astonishing consistency in all natural things, starting from observing details and moving from “the many” to “the one”. He explains that “We unite all things, by perceiving the law which pervades them; by perceiving the superficial differences, and the profound resemblances” (Emerson 1996, p. 637). Emerson believes that what we should worship is “nature the symbol, certifying the supernatural” (Emerson 1996, p. 454). This explains how we can perceive God through nature, thus providing the possibility for self-transcendence.

Secondly, Emerson believes that matter comes from God. God creates all things through “emanation”, and this process of creation is a descending one—from higher to lower, from perfect to imperfect (Urbas 2021, pp. 40–41). He writes in “Circles”, “Whilst the eternal generation of circles proceeds, the eternal generator abides. That central life is somewhat superior to creation, superior to knowledge and thought, and contains all its circles” (Emerson 1996, p. 412). Emerson partially draws on the views of the Neoplatonist Plotinus. In Plotinus’ system, “The One” is the highest form and possesses perfection. Through emanation, this perfection decreases at each level, with humans residing at a lower tier. Briefly, according to Plotinus, when the soul enters the human body, it becomes corrupted and falls. The mission of humans is to transform themselves so that their souls, along with others’, can return to “The One” through Nous. This process is the path of the soul’s return or ascent (Zuo 2012, p. 37). In Emerson’s view, everything that emanates from God can also return to God through a divine “circulations”. As James states, “In Emerson’s cosmology, the outward and onward flow of particulars and evolving forms has an origin or terminus a quo in God” (Urbas 2021, p. 16).

Finally, in response to the question “Where are we going?”, Emerson believes that “what comes from God to us, returns from us to God” (Emerson 1996, p. 657). We will return to God through a process of “circulations”. In his essay “Plato; or, the philosopher”, he writes, ”Our faculties run out into infinity, and return to us thence. We can define but a little way; but here is a fact which will not be skipped, and which to shut our eyes upon is suicide. All things are in a scale; and, begin where we will, ascend and ascend. All things are symbolical; and what we call results are beginnings” (Emerson 1996, p. 648). The question “Where are we going?” refers to the individual’s process of self-transcendence, which is directional—upward and forward—with its endpoint in God. This will be further discussed in the third part.

2.2. “Circulations” and “Tianjun”

After addressing the relationship between “circulations” and cosmic generation and operation in Emerson’s works, this section will turn to Zhuangzi. The concept of “circulations” in Zhuangzi can be illustrated through the characteristics of tianjun. Tianjun can be understood as the way in which the Dao generates all things. It possesses features such as “cyclic repetition” and “creating myriad form”, “unpredictability”, and “non-interference”.

In the text of Zhuangzi, the term tianjun (天钧, written as 天均 in Qiwulun and Yuyan chapters; according to various historical annotations, 均 is synonymous with 钧. In this paper, it is uniformly referred to as “天钧”) appears three times: Qiwulun: “Thus, the sage harmonizes right and wrong and rests in tianjun; this is called walking two paths” (Guo 2012, p. 76). “Gengsang Chu”: “The learner learns what cannot be learned; the doer does what cannot be done; the debater debates what cannot be debated. Knowing where one cannot know is the utmost; if there is anything that is not so, the tianjun will destroy it” (Guo 2012, p. 792). ”Yuyan”: “All things are seeds, differing in forms and appearances. They begin and end like a ring, without finding their kind; This is called tianjun. Tianjun is the pivot of Heaven” (Guo 2012, p. 950).

The interpretations of tianjun by commentators throughout history mainly fall into two categories: natural equilibrium and Taojun 陶钧 (the tools for pottery making, which can also be referred to as the creations of nature). For example, Guo Xiang commented: “No one is biased, so it is entrusted to self-equilibrium”. Cheng Xuanying explained: “Tianjun refers to the principle of natural equilibrium” (Guo 2012, pp. 79–80). Lin Xiyi noted: “Tianju is the process of creation” (Lin 1997, p. 27). Yan Fu explained: “Jun, meaning a pottery wheel. It appears that all things in the Dao have no beginning or end; only a circle can be spoken of, thus giving rise to the matter of cyclical flow” (Chen 2007, p. 839).

I acknowledge the meaning of “taojun”. The reasons are as follows: First, “the different forms appear in cycles, beginning and ending like a ring” describes the cyclical and endless changes of natural things, which is similar to the characteristics of taojun. Taojun, also simply called jun 钧, is the wheel used by ancient people to make pottery. According to Zheng Zi Tong, Complete Volume: “jun refers to the round rotating tool under the mold used by potters” (Zhang 1996). In ancient times, when making pottery, the jun would rotate continuously, shaping the clay into various forms. Ancient people believed that the way of heaven circulates endlessly, producing all things in this process, which is very similar to using jun to make pottery. Therefore, they used jun as a metaphor for natural creation, i.e., the generation and transformation of all things in the world (Lian 2004, pp. 26–28). For example, Pei Yin’s Shiji Ji Jie quotes Hanshu Yin Yi: “Potters call the round rotating tool under the mold jun, because it can shape objects of various sizes, comparing it to heaven” (Sima 2016). Second, jun “creates countless different vessels”, similar to the spontaneous and unpredictable nature of Dao creating all things. Sima Zhen’s Shiji Suoyin notes: “Using jun to create countless different vessels is akin to natural creation” (Sima 2016).

Interpreting jun as taojun, its rotational process embodies the cyclical characteristic of Dao giving birth to all things. Thus, “circulations” gains a cosmological connotation in the context of cosmic creation theory. As an embodiment of Daoist cosmogenesis, “circulations” are also evidenced in Laozi’s Daodejing. As I have already mentioned this in the first part, I will not elaborate on it here. Returning to Zhuangzi, the cyclical nature of Dao generating all things, characterized by “cyclic repetition” and “creating myriad form”, indicates that these circulations are spontaneous, unpredictable, and uncontrollable. In Zhuangzi’s perspective, the Dao that produces the circulations itself does not possess moral attributes, nor does it have divinity or any notion of “perfection” or “goodness”. Its characteristic is ziran erran 自然而然, which serves as the underlying logic for the existence, development, and evolution of all things. Regarding ziran erran, Wang Bo, in his article “So-ness/Approval and Self-So-ness/Self-Approval: A Reinvestigation into the Concept of ziran in Daoism”, argues that ziran 自然 should be understood from both existential and value perspectives. From the existential perspective, “ziran” affirms the state of things being as they are and requires seeking the basis for their existence within themselves, thereby developing a fundamental theory centered on purposeless behavior (wuwei 无为), leading to the negation of a creator. From the value perspective, ziran (self-so) tends to affirm the significance of each thing, requiring validation of its existence based on its own nature, thus developing a political philosophy centered on namelessness (wuming 无名), advocating for the self-naming of things (Wang 2018).

By comparison, it is evident that both Emerson and Zhuangzi associate “circulations” with the generation and operation of the cosmos. However, the difference lies in that, in Emerson, “circulations” reflect God’s process of creation through “emanation” (from higher to lower, from fullness to imperfection), generating all things by descending, and then these things ascend back to God, emphasizing directionality. In contrast, in Zhuangzi, the “circulations” presented through tianjun emphasize characteristics such as “cyclic repetition” and “creating myriad form”. The characteristic of the Dao that generates these “circulations” is ziran erran, which inherently lacks moral attributes, divinity, or any notions of “beauty” and “goodness”.

3. “Circulations” and Self-Transcendence

How can an individual within “circulations” achieve self-transcendence? Both Emerson and Zhuangzi believe that self-transcendence can be achieved by conforming to the “circulations”, and such conformity is a result of the individual’s active choice. In Emerson, this conformity is described as “going with not against the divine flow” (Urbas 2021, p. 38), while in Zhuangzi, it is referred to as “following the Dao”.

3.1. “Going with Not Against the Divine Flow”

In Emerson’s view, “The right conduct of life and labor, in this or any other field of endeavor, means going with not against the divine flow” (Urbas 2021, p. 38). To discuss “going with not against the divine flow”, it is first necessary to address Emerson’s religious views. According to Emerson, as a “structure of sentiment”, religion connects us with God, and the essence of religion is “the perception of the soul in relation to God” or “communion with God” (Urbas 2021, p. 210). As previously mentioned, for Emerson, God possesses an “impersonal nature” and is a form of causality. He believes that belief in God is a fundamental instinct within human nature: “Theism must be and the name of God must be because it is a necessity of the human mind to apprehend the relative as flowing from the absolute and we shall always give the absolute a name” (Urbas 2021, p. 216). Emerson asserts that God is unique and omnipresent. Furthermore, his religious beliefs, like his metaphysics, are predicated on the unity and continuity of reality. He posits that religion, like metaphysics, must be connected to “everyday experience” and be subject to its scrutiny. It must be real and verified by experience. Consequently, religion need not fear science, as religious faith is essentially a belief in causality. In “Montaigne, or the Skeptic”, Emerson writes that in matters of religion, we can also “trust Cause and Effect, with a geometer’s or a chemist’s trust”, because the same laws—the “good Laws” that “themselves are alive”—apply to all fields of human experience (Urbas 2021, p. 222).

Based on this, for Emerson, both the “source” and “endpoint” of the “circulations” should be the “impersonal” God as a form of causality, and individuals can return to God through these “circulations”, “going with not against the divine flow” to achieving self-transcendence. Emerson believes that the human mind is inherently bipolar. If by religion, it tends to the One, “by intellect, or by the senses”, it tends “to the many”. The “invisible” God, as “causality”, expresses itself through individuals and all things, through “details”. Details are the path to the “One”, the path to God, and Emerson firmly believes that we can approach divinity through details (Urbas 2021, pp. 191–92).

In a letter to his “sister” and confidante Caroline Sturgis in October 1840, Emerson wrote: “The steadily accumulating result from month to month has been ever the perception ever more widely & variously illustrated of the circular & perfect Law which gazes at me from every point in nature from every thought in my heart” (Urbas 2021, p. 196). To Emerson, the ultimate power and value of details lie in their relation to morality.

Emerson believed that religious sentiment is directional. It comes from above and guides us back there. It points upward, towards God. In the previous sections, I have argued that in Emerson’s “circulations” system, humans are imperfect and lowly. The way for individuals to achieve self-transcendence is to return to God. “Spirit, or the Life of all life, comes from on high and drives us ever onward. Individual life is turned naturally toward the future and toward perpetual self-transcendence” (Urbas 2021, p. 41). This is also the relationship between “circulations” and “self-transcendence” as understood by Emerson: through the circulations, imperfect individuals can move upwards and forwards from lower levels, returning to the perfect God, thereby achieving self-transcendence.

3.2. “Following the Dao”

In Zhuangzi’s philosophy, how is “circulations” related to self-transcendence? As discussed in the second part of this article, “circulations” is related to the Daoist way of cosmic generation. In the book “Zhuangzi”, the concept of “circulations” exists as the term tianjun. Borrowing from the meaning of “potter’s wheel”, tianjun refers to the ”cyclic repetition” and “creating myriad form” of all things by the Dao, characterized by being “like a ring with no end”, “self-generating”, and “unintervened”. Similarly, as the source of “circulations”, both the Dao and Emerson’s God are impersonal. However, influenced by Neoplatonism, Emerson’s God is perfect, embodying “beauty” and “goodness”, and is moral. For Emerson, our understanding and virtue are guided by God’s ultimate purpose. Since our soul is from God, we are already equipped with values from God. These values, as ultimate purposes, guide our cognition and actions (Gao 2023). To directly perceive the transcendental, to converse with God, and to grasp the eternal truth, goodness, and beauty, the only correct attitude is submission. It is only through willing obedience that we become holy (Zuo 2012, p. 74). On the other hand, the Dao exists “naturally and spontaneously” (ziran erran). In previous parts, I have discussed the understanding of “nature” from both existence and value perspectives. Wang Bo believes that from a value standpoint, the concept of “nature” must acknowledge the self-affirmation and recognition of things. In other words, a thing itself is the basis for its significance and value, without needing external standards or entities for measurement. The value of “nature” is most concerned with affirming each thing on its own terms, rather than accepting or rejecting it based on some standard (Wang 2018). Therefore, the “naturally and spontaneity” (ziran erran) of the Dao is indifferent to “good” and “evil” and lacks moral attributes. For Zhuangzi, when we do not allow any purposeful value pursuits to influence our thoughts, we develop power. We do not need to choose to surrender ourselves to God because choice itself implies purpose. Zhuangzi emphasizes forgetting various purposeful pursuits (Gao 2023).

Since the sources of “circulations” in Zhuangzi and Emerson are different, their ways of achieving self-transcendence naturally differ as well. In Zhuangzi’s view, the individual does not need to flow “upward” or “forward” but rather return to the Dao, because the Dao itself, which gives birth to all things, does not have a directional hierarchy from high to low. Therefore, based on the characteristics of “circulations” in each philosophy, in Zhuangzi’s case, conforming to the “circulations” means achieving self-transcendence through “purposeless behavior” (wuwei 无为) while accomplishing everything, that is, “following the Dao”. According to Roger T. Ames, “following the Dao” means that a person loses the self that objectifies the world and themselves (the construing self) and gains the adaptive self, which corresponds to Zhuangzi’s concept of “I lost myself” (wu sang wo 吾丧我, qiwulun) (Ames 2006, pp. 357–58). Additionally, Robin R. Wang argues that Zhuangzi, through the idea of “I lost myself”, elaborates on two levels of the heart/mind (xin 心): the heart/mind that perceives external objects and the heart/mind of “no-mind” (or the heart/mind of the Dao). The former distinguishes the world and holds “yes” or “no” (shi-fei 是非) views toward things, making it impossible to obtain the Dao. The latter transcends all distinctions and dualities, connecting with the heart/mind of the cosmos. The process from the former to the latter can also be described as the transformation from an empirical ego (ziwo 自我) to an ontological true self (zhenwo, 真我) (Wang 2012, p. 135).

4. The Path from “Circulations” to Self-Transcendence

After elucidating the relationship between “circulations” and cosmic generation and operation in Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s philosophies, as well as the possibilities of achieving self-transcendence through “circulations”, this section will further elaborate on the practical paths by which Emerson and Zhuangzi achieve self-transcendence through “circulations”.

4.1. Returning to God Through Revelation

For Emerson, nature is reality rather than illusion. There is no separation between God and material nature. Unity exists in the relationship among man, nature, and God, with material nature being an embodiment and revelation of the divine. We can understand God by understanding the essence of matter (Gao 2023). Intuition and insight are what Emerson refers to as the process or moment of gaining revelation. Emerson understands revelation as the declaration of the soul, a self-proclamation of its own nature. It is always accompanied by sublime emotions because such communication is the divine mind flowing into our minds (Zuo 2012, p. 73).

So, for the individual, how can one transcend the false self and achieve unity with the highest reality through daily practice? In his writings, Emerson provides some practical paths, such as experiencing nature, engaging with poets, appreciating art, and fulfilling one’s vocation to perceive and return to God, ultimately achieving self-transcendence.

The first path is nature. As I mentioned in the second part, for Emerson, nature is “nature the symbol, certifying the supernatural” (Emerson 1996, p. 454). In “History”, Emerson writes: “Genius detects through the fly, through the caterpillar, through the grub, through the egg, the constant individual; Through countless individuals, the fixed species: Through many species, the genus; Through all genera, the steadfast type; Through all the kingdoms of organized life, the eternal unity” (Emerson 1996, p. 242). Emerson believes that there are always two fundamental facts in the world: “One” and “Two”, and we can perceive the “One” through the diversity and details in nature. Therefore, nature is also a path for the individual to achieve self-transcendence and return to God and eternity.

The second path is the poets. Before discussing poets, I would first like to discuss Emerson’s attitude towards “expression”, as there appear to be seemingly contradictory points in his texts. For example, Emerson says in “Intellect”: “To genius must always go two gifts, the thought and the publication” (Emerson 1996, p. 422), and in “The Poet”, he writes: “The man is only half himself, the other half is his expression” (Emerson 1996, p. 448). Emerson himself was also someone who valued “expression”, but, on the other hand, Emerson held a negative attitude towards “speech”. As he writes in “Intellect”: “Happy is the hearing man; unhappy is the speaking man”. “But if I speak, I define, I confine, and am less” (Emerson 1996, p. 426). This attitude is more akin to the Daoist perspective on “expression”, such as Laozi’s statement in the first chapter of the Daodejing, that “The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao”, and Zhuangzi’s view in the Waiwu 外物 chapter that “Words exist because of meaning; Once you get the meaning, forget the words”.

Why does Emerson appear to have such logical contradictions in “Intellect”? By analyzing other writings, we can see that it is not actually contradictory. Because, in Emerson’s view, it is the poet who needs to “expression”, while for ordinary people, “listening” is sufficient. Emerson writes in “History”, The universal nature, too strong for the petty nature of the bard, sits on his neck and writes through his hand” (Emerson 1996, p. 253). In “The Poet”, he also states, “The poet knows that he speaks adequately, then, only when he speaks somewhat wildly, or, ’with the flower of the mind’” (Emerson 1996, p. 459). Therefore, Emerson actually defines the “true poet” as a “necessary and causal expresser”. Emerson believes that “some men, namely, poets, are natural sayers, sent into the world to the end of expression, and confounds them with those whose province is action, but who quit it to imitate the sayers” (Emerson 1996, p. 449). The “those whose province is action, but who quit it to imitate the sayers” mentioned here actually refers to ordinary people who Emerson thinks should remain silent and listen attentively but fail to do so. In Emerson’s view, for ordinary people, the meaning of the world is something that can be understood but not easily expressed in words. He writes in “Intellect”: “When Socrates speaks, Lysis and Menexenus are afflicted by no shame that they do not speak” (Emerson 1996, p. 426). This is because, as ordinary people, what they should do is to listen, achieving self-transcendence through listening to the expressions brought by the poet’s imagination or the revelations of the absolute spirit.

The third path is art. Emerson believes that everyone has a way to access primal truths, but it is only in artists that this ability extends to their hands. “Not by any conscious imitation of particular forms are the grand strokes of the painter executed, but by repairing to the fountain-head of all forms in his mind” (Emerson 1996, p. 423). Here, the artist possesses a similar ability to that of the poet, which is to create “with the flower of the mind”. Their works are not mere imitations of the phenomenal world or representations of diversity, but expressions of unity, of the “One”. In Emerson’s view, ordinary people can also achieve self-transcendence by appreciating such works of art, seeking unity from details rather than just lingering on them.

The fourth path is “vocation”. This is also a way for everyone to achieve self-transcendence. Emerson believes that

Each man has his own vocation. The talent is the call. There is one direction in which all space is open to him. He has faculties silently inviting him thither to endless exertion... This talent and this call depend on his organization, or the mode in which the general soul incarnates itself in him. He inclines to do something which is easy to him, and good when it is done, but which no other man can do. He has no rival. For the more truly he consults his own powers, the more difference will his work exhibit from the work of any other. His ambition is exactly proportioned to his powers... Every man has this call of the power to do somewhat unique, and no man has any other call.

(Emerson 1996, p. 310)

Based on this, each person finding their own “vocation” and engaging in their “vocation” enables them to achieve self-transcendence.

4.2. “Following the Dao” to Achieve “Unity with the Dao”

Based on the discussion in the third part, in the text of Zhuangzi, the way to achieve self-transcendence through “circulations” is “following the Dao” So, how should “following the Dao” be concretely manifested in practice? Zhuangzi believes that we can achieve this through the health-preserving method of “following the Du as a principle” and spiritual practices like “xinzhai” (emptiness of mind-heart and selflessness) and “zuowang” (sitting in oblivion).

4.2.1. The Health-Preserving Method of “Following the Du as a Principle”

The opening part of “Primacy of Nourishing Life” (yangshengzhu 养生主) states: “following the Du as a principle, one can preserve one’s body, maintain life, nurture one’s parents, and fulfill one’s years”. The entire text also specifically illustrates the health-preserving method of “following the Du as a principle” through several parables such as “Cook Ding Carving an Ox 庖丁解牛”, “Gong Wenxuan Meeting Youshi 公文轩见右师”, “The Joy of a Marsh Pheasant ’泽雉’之乐”, and “Lao Dan’s Death, Qin Shi Mourning Him 老聃死，秦失吊之”.

Before explaining these parables, I would like to discuss the meaning of following the Du as a principle. Throughout history, commentators on Zhuangzi have interpreted “Du 督” in various ways, including “center 中” (Such as Li Yi, Guo Xiang, Cheng Xuanying, Wang Fuzhi, Liu Fengbao, Guan Jian, Li Zhen), “have no alternative but to 不得已” (Such as Lü Huicheng, Lin Xiyi), and “true Xing 真性” (Such as Yidu). Although there are differences among these interpretations, they generally understand “following the Du as a principle” as “following the Dao” (Guo 2012; Lin 1997; Zhong 2002; Wang 1964; Hu 2011; Lü 2009). Based on this foundation, I will engage in a discussion of four fables.

• Cook Ding Carving an Ox

“Following the natural patterns, I strike in the big gaps and guide my knife through the large openings, thus conforming to the inherent structure.

... The spaces between the joints have room, while the edge of the knife has no thickness; by inserting what is without thickness into where there is space, the blade moves with ample freedom. Therefore, after nineteen years, the edge of my knife remains as sharp as if it had just come from the whetstone”.

(Guo 2012, pp. 123–30)

Based on the interpretations and annotations of predecessors such as Guo Xiang, Cheng Xuanying, and Lin Xiyi, this passage conveys the idea that Cook Ding dissects the ox by following its natural structure and joints. Thus, Du 督 can be understood as the natural joints of the ox’s body, which in turn can be interpreted as the natural laws of external things (Guo 2012, pp. 125–29; Lin 1997, p. 50).

In this way, “following the Du 督” in butchering means cutting along the intersections and spaces between the bones and flesh, thereby not damaging the blade. In Zhuangzi’s view, everything has its own natural order. Lin Xiyi further interprets this as living in accordance with the natural principles of all things, so as not to harm the edge of one’s life (Lin 1997, pp. 50–51). The health-preserving method derived from this is: act according to the natural principles of worldly affairs.

b.

Gong Wenxuan Meeting Youshi

Who is this person? How did he become like this? Is it by nature or by human intervention?” The answer was: “It is by nature, not by human intervention. Nature made him lame, and human appearance also has its influence. From this, we know that it is by nature, not by human intervention.”

(Guo 2012, p. 130)

Lin Xiyi believes that, “Although this is done by humans, it is also the work of nature. It implies that people should accept adversity calmly” (Lin 1997, p. 53) Meanwhile, Cheng Xuanying comments: “The brightness and darkness of wisdom, the completeness and deficiency of form, all come from nature, not human affairs. Even if one violates the king’s law and thus suffers physical harm, it is still due to natural stupidity and insufficient self-care. They only know their form is harmed by others, but do not realize their wisdom is darkened by nature. This shows that everything happens for a reason, nothing is unrelated to fate” (Guo 2012, p. 131). Here, there is an added meaning of accepting and conforming to the workings of creation and adapting to one’s personal destiny. In Zhuangzi’s perspective, “fate 命” can be understood as “social fate 社会之命” and “natural fate 自然之命”. People cannot completely detach from society; therefore, Zhuangzi believes one should adopt an attitude of “peace” towards “social fate”. By achieving “peace” with external “social fate”, Zhuangzi shifts the foundation of human life from external to internal, ultimately settling the root of life in “natural fate”. “Natural fate” is one with the “Dao”, complete in itself. The process of returning to “natural fate” is the attainment of “Carefree” (xiaoyao 逍遥) (Tang 2023), which is the realization of self-transcendence.

c.

The Joy of a Marsh Pheasant

The marsh pheasant pecks once every ten steps, drinks once every hundred steps. It does not wish to be kept in a cage. Even if it were given divine powers, it would not find this shan.

(Guo 2012, p. 132)

Lin Xiyi interprets shan as “happy”. What is the joy of the marsh pheasant? It is not being confined in a cage with ample food and drink, but rather “pecking once every ten steps, drinking once every hundred steps”. The natural state that follows the inherent nature of the marsh pheasant is happiness. From the pheasant to humans, both Guo Xiang and Cheng Xuanying believe one should live according to the natural way of life, unhindered by fame and glory: “Bowing and looking up between heaven and earth, wandering freely in the field of self-contentment, is indeed the wonderful way of nurturing life. Why seek to enter a cage to be fed!” Cheng Xuanying’s explanation is similar to Guo Xiang’s general idea, adding: “For those who nurture life, living in seclusion happily, only satisfying their emotions in the forest sounds, how could they long for fame and glory!” (Guo 2012, p. 132). This also reflects Zhuangzi’s transcendence over traditional values such as fame and glory, pursuing the true self in unity with the Dao.

d.

Lao Dan (Laozi) Died, and Qin Shi Went to Mourn Him

When I entered to pay my respects, there were old men weeping for him as if weeping for their own son; young men weeping for him as if weeping for their own mother. Their gathering must have had those who spoke without intending to speak, and cried without intending to cry. This is evading the natural order and betraying true feelings, forgetting what they received from nature. The ancients called this ‘the punishment of evading the natural order’.

(Guo 2012, p. 133)

Regarding “the punishment of evading the natural order 遁天之刑”, Cheng Xuanying explains: “To evade the principles of nature and excessively adhere to mundane emotions, causing sorrow and joy to fill one’s heart, resulting in mental distress akin to being beaten or punished—how could this not be considered a form of punishment!” (Guo 2012, p. 134). Lin Xiyi annotates it as, “What one receives from heaven is originally nothing, yet one is moved by emotions. This means forgetting what was initially received and evading the natural order, abandoning true feelings. Such actions are offenses against heaven, thus called ‘the punishment of evading the natural order’” (Lin 1997, p. 54). Chen Zhiwei believes that “the punishment of evading the natural order” refers to not understanding one’s innate nature, falling into the temptations of external things, becoming unconsciously immersed in the joys and fears arising from gains and losses. Although no external physical punishment is inflicted, one’s disposition is placed in a state of distress with no way out, equating to being punished (Chen 2018). To avoid falling into such a situation, one should “understand the natural principles” and “accept timing and adapt accordingly”. In doing so, “sorrow and joy cannot penetrate”, achieving the nurturing of life (Lin 1997, p. 54; Guo 2012, p. 134).

4.2.2. The Spiritual Cultivation Methods of “Xinzhai” and “Zuowang”

“Xinzhai” (emptiness of mind-heart and selflessness, renjianshi 人间世) and “zuowang” (sitting in oblivion, dazongshi 大宗师) are two methods for spiritual cultivation to enter the realm of Dao that have particularly attracted the attention of Zhuangzi scholars. The practice of xinzhai focuses on inward concentration—”from the ears to the heart”, “from the heart to the Qi 气”, layer by layer internally restrained. In contrast, the practice of zuowang makes the mind outwardly expansive—by forgetting benevolence and righteousness, forgetting rites and music, transcending the limitations of the physical form and the constraints of intellectual skills, “layer by layer outwardly expanding” towards the realm of Dao. Both methods share commonalities in their process of progressing from practice to the realm of Dao, from “learning” to “being one with the Dao” (Chen 2009).

Specifically, in renjianshi, Zhuangzi writes:

“Concentrate your will. Do not listen with your ears but listen with your heart. Do not listen with your heart but listen with your Qi 气. Hearing stops at the ears; the heart stops at what accords with it; Qi 气 is empty and waits for things. Only the Dao gathers in emptiness. Emptiness is called xinzhai”.

(Guo 2012, p. 152)

The method of xinzhai under the principle of “concentration of will” involves steps such as “stopping the ears”, “stopping the heart”, “leading with Qi 气”, and “gathering in emptiness”. This means concentrating one’s spirit, then gradually replacing sensory activities with the function of the heart, and then guiding the heart’s function with clear and empty Qi 气. “Only the Dao gathers in emptiness”—the Dao can only gather in the clear and empty Qi 气. This clear, empty, and bright state of mind is called xinzhai. The key to xinzhai lies in spiritual unity (“concentration of will”), guiding the clear and empty qi to converge in an empty and spiritually aware heart through the practice of tranquility (Chen 2009).

In dazongshi 大宗师, Zhuangzi writes:

Let go of limbs, dismiss intelligence, leave form, remove knowledge, be in harmony with the great communion. This is called zuowang.

(Guo 2012, p. 290)

The method of xinzhai opens up the inner spiritual realm of the self, while the method of zuowang moves from the individual self towards the cosmic greater self (Chen 2009). Scholars generally believe that Nan Guo Zi Qi’s 南郭子綦 “sitting quietly without doing anything” in “On Equalizing Things” seems like a prelude to zuowang. Zi Qi ultimately reaches a state of self-forgetting—”I lost myself” (wu sang wo). The “I” in “I lost myself” resembles the “great communion” state reached in zuowang, whereas “lost myself” corresponds to the steps in zuowang of transcending the body and intellect (“leaving form, removing knowledge”). To reach the Daoist realm of “great communion”, Zhuangzi provides three main processes: first, seeking to transcend external norms (“forgetting rites and music”), second, seeking to transcend internal norms (“forgetting benevolence and righteousness”), and finally, breaking free from the constraints of both body and mind (“leaving form, removing knowledge”). Thus, the method of zuowang aims to transcend utilitarianism, morality, and the constraints of one’s senses and thoughts, achieving spiritual freedom, being “in harmony with the great communion”, reaching the highest state of unity with Dao (Tang 1996).

5. Conclusions

Benoît Vermander believes that we can view the world and history as an endless network of dialogues (Vermander 2013, p. 15). The study of comparative philosophy facilitates mutual reflection between Chinese and Western philosophies, enabling each to view its own culture from a more transcendent perspective while broadening its horizons (Ames 2018, p. 12; 2021, p. 6). We can compare Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s philosophies based on this purpose.

In this article, I begin with the topic of “circulation”, a concept that is highly significant in both Western and Chinese philosophy and frequently appears in the texts of Emerson and Zhuangzi, and conducts a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences between Emerson’s and Zhuangzi’s philosophies regarding “circulations” as a mode of cosmic generation and operation, the relationship between “circulations” and self-transcendence, and explores the practical paths to achieve self-transcendence via circulations based on these two aspects.

Firstly, both Emerson and Zhuangzi believe that “circulations” is related to the generation and operation of the cosmos. However, the difference lies in that the “circulations” in Emerson’s texts reflect God’s creation of all things through “emanation” (from higher to lower, from perfect to imperfect), descending first and then ascending back to God, emphasizing directionality. In contrast, the “circulations” presented in Zhuangzi through tianjun emphasize characteristics such as “cyclic repetition” and “creating myriad form”. The characteristic of the Dao generating the “circulations” is “naturalness”, which inherently lacks moral or divine attributes or concepts of “beauty” and “goodness”.

Secondly, both Emerson and Zhuangzi believe that individuals can achieve self-transcendence by conforming to the “circulations”, and this conformity is a result of active choice by the individual. For Emerson, this “conformity” is “going with not against the divine flow”. Specifically, through the circulations, imperfect individuals can ascend and move forward, returning to the perfect God, thereby achieving self-transcendence. Emerson believes that the path to the peak is inward; for Zhuangzi, conforming to the “circulations” means following the Dao.

Lastly, Emerson provides some practical paths in his works for returning to God and achieving self-transcendence, such as through nature, poets, art, and vocation. For Zhuangzi, one can achieve unity with the Dao by following it. Specifically, this can be achieved through the health-preserving methods of “following the Du as a principle 缘督以为经” and the spiritual practices of xinzhai and zuowang. Zhuangzi advocates for acting according to natural principles, accepting personal fate, living naturally without being burdened by fame, fortune, and other worldly values, avoiding external temptations, understanding the natural order, and adapting to circumstances. This leads to transcending utilitarianism, morality, and the constraints of sensory perceptions, ultimately reaching a state of spiritual freedom and unity with the Dao.