Rethinking the Relationship Between Freedom and Benevolence in Liberal Confucianism

Abstract

This paper probes into the intricate nexus between freedom and benevolence within Liberal Confucianism, a prominent intellectual current in the epoch of globalization. Through an exploration of how these two core values are construed and interlinked within the context of Liberal Confucianism, our objective is to proffer a more profound comprehension of this philosophical-ethical system. We trace the historical evolution of these concepts in Confucian thought and analyze how Liberal Confucianism reinterprets them in response to modern challenges. Through a comparative analysis with Western liberalism and an examination of their practical implications in contemporary society, we demonstrate that the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism holds the potential to contribute to a more harmonious and just global community. Despite facing challenges in cross-cultural adaptation, this exploration of the two-value relationship can provide valuable insights for both academic research and real-world applications.

1. Introduction

In the era of globalization, the landscape of cultural and intellectual exchange has undergone a profound transformation. The incessant influx of diverse ideas and values has engendered the emergence of sundry intellectual trends, each endeavoring to redefine and harmonize traditional beliefs with the exigencies of modern society. Liberal Confucianism, a salient actor in this domain, has emerged as a response to these dynamics, with the aim of forging a synthesis between Confucian traditions and modern liberal values (Liang 2024). Before delving into the details of Liberal Confucianism, it is essential to clarify the theoretical concepts of freedom and benevolence. In Confucian thought, freedom is not simply about unrestrained personal indulgence. In pre-modern Chinese, there was no exact equivalent term for “freedom” as we understand it today. The concept of “Confucian freedom” used in this paper is a retrospective construction. It is formulated by drawing on Western notions of freedom while taking into account the unique characteristics of Confucian thought. In the context of Confucianism, the idea that combines “moral cultivation, social harmony, and a sense of responsibility” can be understood as a form of freedom. This is because, within the Confucian framework, through moral self-cultivation, individuals can achieve a state where their actions are in harmony with moral principles, which in turn contributes to social harmony. This process also reflects a sense of responsibility towards society. By using the term “Confucian freedom”, we aim to highlight this unique understanding within Confucian thought, which, although different from the Western concept, shares some commonalities in the pursuit of an individual’s well-being and the betterment of the community. It is important to note that this term is used to facilitate the exploration and communication of Confucian ideas in a modern, cross-cultural context, without distorting the original meaning of Confucian teachings. Instead, it serves as a bridge to connect Confucian wisdom with contemporary discourses on freedom. It is intertwined with moral self-cultivation and the pursuit of social harmony. Benevolence, or ‘ren’ in Chinese, lies at the very core of Confucian ethics. It encompasses a wide range of noble qualities, including kindness, compassion, and a genuine concern for the well-being of others.

In traditional Confucianism, freedom and benevolence are intricately interconnected. The pursuit of freedom through moral self-cultivation serves as a crucial path to realizing benevolence. When individuals engage in the process of self-cultivation and gain the freedom to act in accordance with moral principles, they are better equipped to show benevolence towards others. Conversely, benevolence acts as a guiding principle for the proper exercise of freedom, setting boundaries to ensure that one’s actions contribute to the common good. Liberal Confucianism, in this paper, refers to an intellectual trend that endeavors to integrate the essence of traditional Confucian values, such as moral self-cultivation, the pursuit of social harmony, and the emphasis on human relationships, with modern liberal concepts like individual rights, freedom of expression, and democratic participation. It aims to create a new philosophical-ethical system that not only inherits the wisdom of Confucianism but also adapts to the needs of modern society, providing a unique perspective on addressing contemporary social, political, and ethical issues. This definition serves as a preliminary understanding for the exploration of the relationship between freedom and benevolence within the context of Liberal Confucianism in this paper. This study delves deep into the intricate relationship between two fundamental values within Liberal Confucianism: freedom and benevolence. By doing so, we can unlock a more profound understanding of its unique contributions to modern ethical and social thought (Q. Hu 2019).

Traditional Confucianism, which has long-standing and far-reaching influence on Chinese society, has encountered unprecedented challenges in the modern world. The ascent of individualism, the expansion of human rights movements, and the escalating demand for democratic governance have cast a new light on traditional values, compelling a thorough re-evaluation. Liu (1992) believes that if Confucianism does not combine with modern democracy, freedom, and the rule of law, and does not engage in real-world political and economic reforms, it “will still be constrained by the traditional framework and unable to find a real way out”. Liberal Confucianism stepped onto the stage as an attempt to navigate these challenges. It endeavors to integrate concepts of freedom and equality while safeguarding the core essence of Confucian values (Guo 2017). Classical Confucianism, with a long-standing history, is centered around traditional values such as moral self-cultivation within a hierarchical social structure, the pursuit of social harmony based on the proper fulfillment of roles, and the emphasis on family-centered ethics. It has a well-established system of moral and ethical norms that have been developed over centuries. For example, in classical Confucianism, the Five Cardinal Relationships (ruler–subject, father–son, husband–wife, elder–younger brother, and friend–friend) defined the moral and social order, and moral cultivation was mainly achieved through following traditional rituals and learning from sages. In contrast, Liberal Confucianism emerged in the context of modern society, facing the impact of globalization, the spread of democratic ideas, and the emphasis on individual rights. It takes the essence of classical Confucianism as its foundation but also incorporates modern liberal values. It emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, such as freedom of expression and democratic participation, while still maintaining the importance of moral self-cultivation. For instance, Liberal Confucianism reinterprets the traditional concept of benevolence to include a global perspective, which is a new development compared to the more family- and community-oriented view in classical Confucianism. This new intellectual trend adapts Confucianism to the modern era by reinterpreting traditional concepts to meet the needs of contemporary society. This paper aims to explore the relationship between freedom and benevolence from the perspective of Liberal Confucianism, as well as the integration mechanisms and methods of these two core values in Liberal Confucianism.

The concept of freedom in Confucianism has always been a topic of great significance. It is not a simple matter of unrestrained personal indulgence. However, the concept of freedom in Confucianism is distinct from the Western understanding, and there is no exact equivalent term. In this paper, we will explore the unique connotations of freedom in Confucian thought and attempt to bridge the gap in understanding for Western readers. Instead, it is intertwined with moral self-cultivation and the pursuit of social harmony. Confucius’ famous saying, “At seventy, I could follow my heart’s desire without transgressing moral norms” (The Analects, 2.4), vividly depicts a state where true freedom is achieved when one’s actions are in perfect alignment with moral principles. This form of freedom is an inner spiritual state, a harmonious blend of personal will and moral righteousness, attained through the arduous cultivation of virtues like benevolence, righteousness, and propriety (Guo 2019; Peng 2019).

Benevolence, or “ren” in Chinese, lies at the very heart of Confucian ethics. It encompasses a wide range of noble qualities, including kindness, compassion, and a genuine concern for the well-being of others. As recorded in The Analects, when Fan Chi inquired about benevolence, Confucius simply replied, “Love others 愛人” (The Analects, 12.22)1. This seemingly straightforward definition is, in fact, the cornerstone of Confucian moral philosophy. Benevolence is not an abstract concept but is vividly manifested in concrete actions, such as showing kindness to others, offering a helping hand to the needy, and respecting the dignity of every individual (Meng 2001).

In traditional Confucianism, freedom and benevolence are not isolated concepts; rather, they are intricately intertwined. The pursuit of freedom through moral self-cultivation serves as a crucial path to realizing benevolence. When individuals engage in the process of self-cultivation and gain the freedom to act in accordance with moral principles, they are better equipped to show benevolence towards others. For example, a person who has achieved a high level of moral freedom will spontaneously act with kindness and concern for the people around them, fulfilling the requirements of benevolence. Conversely, benevolence acts as a guiding principle for the proper exercise of freedom. It sets boundaries for freedom, ensuring that one’s actions contribute to the common good rather than causing harm to others. In this way, freedom and benevolence in traditional Confucianism support and complement each other, forming the bedrock of a harmonious social order.

However, in the context of modern society, Liberal Confucianism reinterprets these traditional concepts. The need for reinterpreting freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism is rooted in the changing social, political, and cultural landscape of the modern world. In modern society, the rise of globalization has made the world more interconnected than ever before. Issues such as global poverty, environmental degradation, and social inequality have become pressing concerns that require a more inclusive and far-reaching approach. Classical Confucianism, with its traditional focus on local communities and family-based values, is insufficient to address these global challenges. For example, the traditional concept of benevolence, which was mainly practiced within the family and local community, cannot effectively deal with the complex and widespread problems in the global arena. Therefore, Liberal Confucianism expands the scope of benevolence to embrace global citizenship, emphasizing the responsibility of individuals towards people around the world. Regarding freedom, the development of modern democratic systems and the increasing emphasis on individual rights have changed the understanding of freedom. Classical Confucian freedom, which was closely related to moral self-cultivation within a specific social structure, needs to be adjusted to accommodate the modern demand for individual autonomy and the right to participate in political and social affairs. This re-interpretation aims to make Confucianism more relevant and applicable in the modern world, enabling it to contribute to the solution of contemporary social issues. As Tu (2002) put it, “We must examine the modern transformation of Confucianism by liberal ideas”. It endeavors to integrate modern liberal values, such as individual rights and freedoms, into the Confucian framework while concurrently preserving the quintessence of traditional values (Chen 2007). For instance, in the face of modern social and political issues, Liberal Confucianism posits that individuals should have the freedom to express their opinions and participate in democratic decision making. But this freedom is not without bounds; it should be exercised within the framework of moral and social responsibilities. This new interpretation of freedom aims to combine the best of both Confucian and liberal traditions, enabling individuals to pursue their own development while also contributing to the well-being of society (Zhao 2018).

Similarly, Liberal Confucianism re-evaluates benevolence in light of modern society. It expands the traditional boundaries of benevolence, which were often confined to the family and local community, to embrace a more global and inclusive perspective. The concept of global citizenship is integrated into the understanding of benevolence, emphasizing the responsibility of individuals towards people around the world (Chan 2002). In the face of global challenges like poverty and environmental protection, Liberal Confucianism calls for a sense of benevolence that transcends national boundaries. It encourages individuals to take action to alleviate the suffering of others and to protect the planet for future generations. This reinterpretation of benevolence reflects the adaptation of Confucian values to the realities of a globalized world.

The research questions guiding this study are three-fold. First, how are freedom and benevolence defined and interpreted in Liberal Confucianism? Second, what is the nature of their relationship, and how does it differ from the understanding in traditional Confucianism and Western liberalism? Third, how can the exploration of this relationship contribute to contemporary social and ethical discourses, such as in the fields of political philosophy, education, and global governance?

To answer these questions, this research adopts a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach. It combines in-depth analysis of classic Confucian texts, such as The Analects and Mencius, with the works of modern scholars who have studied Liberal Confucianism (e.g., Liang Tao, Zhao Guangming, and Guo Ping). Comparative research methods are used to contrast the understanding of freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism with that in Western liberalism. Case studies are also employed to examine the practical implications of these values in different social contexts. By using these research methods, we can provide a more comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism, which is of great significance for understanding the value and practical application of Liberal Confucianism in modern society.

2. The Conceptualization of Freedom and Benevolence in Confucian Thought

2.1. Freedom in Confucianism

In traditional Confucian thought, freedom is a concept that is markedly distinct from the unbridled pursuit of personal desires typically associated with the contemporary understanding in certain Western contexts. It is intertwined with moral self-cultivation and the harmonious co-existence within society. Confucius’ renowned statement, “At seventy, I could follow my heart’s desire without transgressing moral norms 七十而從心所欲，不逾矩” (The Analects, 2.4)2, serves as a profound cornerstone for understanding the nature of freedom in Confucianism. During Confucius’ time, the society was in a period of transition from the Western Zhou Dynasty’s feudal system to a more complex social structure. The traditional values and social order were being challenged, and there was a growing need for a moral and ethical framework to guide people’s behavior. Confucius’ idea of freedom was formed in this context. His pursuit of freedom was not only a personal spiritual pursuit but also had implications for social stability. He believed that by achieving self-cultivation and following moral norms, individuals could contribute to a harmonious society. This view was in contrast to the chaos and disorder of the society at that time, where people often pursued self-interest without considering moral consequences. For example, in the era of the Spring and Autumn Period, the decline of the Zhou Dynasty’s authority led to frequent wars and social unrest. Confucius advocated for a return to moral values and the pursuit of true freedom through self-restraint and moral cultivation, which was a way to restore social order. This sentence “not only reflects Confucius’ life journey, but also his understanding and practice of the spirit of freedom” (D. Huang 2000). It can be seen that the concept of freedom in Confucianism does not advocate wanton indulgence. Instead, it depicts a state where an individual’s behavior is in perfect harmony with moral principles. This form of freedom represents an exalted inner spiritual state, where personal will and moral righteousness are seamlessly integrated. Ames (2011) pointed out, “In the Confucian tradition, real freedom is concrete: It is the opportunity to realize oneself fully within the roles and relations that constitute one first in the family, and then by extension within the world more broadly construed. Freedom is maximizing personal growth as it is determined by full participation in and enjoyment of one’s family and community relations”. This perspective provides us with a deeper understanding of Confucius’ view of freedom, emphasizing its concrete manifestation in social contexts. Moreover, Confucius’ idea that “I desire benevolence, and benevolence arrives 我欲仁，斯仁至矣” (The Analects, 1.5) further illuminates the close connection between an individual’s inner will and moral practice. This indicates that when one sincerely desires to be benevolent, the realization of benevolence is within reach.

De Bary (1983) pointed out that Zhu Xi emphasized the “learning for oneself”, believing that moral and spiritual improvement can be achieved through self-cultivation3. This view is highly consistent with the concept in Liberal Confucianism of pursuing freedom through moral cultivation. Moreover, this process of self-cultivation is also a process of practicing benevolence and achieving social harmony. As Zhu Xi advocated, individuals, in the process of pursuing self-perfection, continuously elevate their moral realm, and thus are able to care for others better and contribute to society. This profoundly reflects the close connection between freedom and benevolence in Confucian thought. Through the “learning for oneself”, individuals internalize external moral norms into their own codes of conduct. While achieving self-moral improvement, they naturally extend their benevolent hearts to others and actively participate in social affairs, promoting the harmonious stability of society. This further demonstrates that in the Confucian ideological system, freedom and benevolence are interdependent and jointly constitute the cornerstone of individual moral development and the harmonious operation of society.

It reflects that in Confucianism, moral cultivation is not an external compulsion but an active pursuit from the heart. Just as the pursuit of freedom through moral cultivation is of great significance in Confucian thought, the pursuit of benevolence is also an indispensable part of it. It is a kind of freedom that is nurtured from within by carefully cultivating virtues such as benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), and propriety (li). As Peng (2019) elaborated, the freedom in Confucianism means that “in the relationship of co-existence and interaction with the world, people freely choose their lives and master their own fates based on ‘benevolence’ (ren) in their survival practices”.

Moral autonomy is a key element of the Confucian concept of freedom, which is fundamentally different from the self-centeredness of individualism. Instead, it embodies a strong sense of responsibility towards others and society as a whole. Unlike the individualistic freedom in Western liberalism, moral autonomy in Confucianism is rooted in social relationships and moral responsibilities. Western liberalism often emphasizes that freedom is to get rid of external constraints (Berlin 1969; Dworkin 1977), while Confucian freedom focuses on the internal harmony between individual will and moral principles in a social context. For example, when making choices, a Confucian would consider the impact on family, community, and society, not just personal interests, which is a significant difference from the Western concept of freedom. As Mencius said, “The great man is he who does not lose his child’s heart” (Mencius, 4B12), emphasizing the importance of maintaining a pure and kind heart in the pursuit of true freedom. This emphasis on moral cultivation and social responsibility corresponds to the “great man” spirit advocated in Mencius. “One cannot be corrupted by wealth and rank, cannot be swayed by poverty and lowliness, and cannot be subdued by force and power. This is what is meant by a great man” (Mencius, 6B2). The “great man” spirit reflects a noble quality of adhering to moral principles and remaining undisturbed by external interferences. As S. Hu (2015) pointed out, by cultivating virtues and acting in the best interests of society, individuals can reach a state of freedom that not only satisfies their own spiritual needs but also brings tangible benefits to the society around them. It is precisely for this reason that Mencius was regarded by Hu Shi as “one of the earliest advocates of liberalism in the world”.

To further illustrate, in Confucian-influenced communities throughout history, individuals who strived for moral self-improvement often engaged in acts of public service. They might have volunteered to teach in local schools, offer assistance to the poor, or participate in community-building projects. These acts were not only demonstrations of moral virtue but also manifestations of their freedom. By choosing to act in this way, they were aligning their personal will with moral principles, thereby exercising their freedom in a manner that contributed to the greater good. This form of freedom is not about doing as one pleases but about making choices that are in line with a higher moral code.

Moreover, the Confucian understanding of freedom is closely linked to the concept of the “Way” (Dao). In The Analects, Confucius said, “If a man in the morning hear the right way, he may die in the evening without regret” (The Analects, 4.8). This vividly demonstrates Confucius’ profound reverence for the “Way”. It shows that in his view, the “Way” is of such great significance that the mere acquisition of it would make life fulfilling, even if death were to follow immediately. This reflects his strong pursuit of the “Way” and implies that the “Way” is a crucial element in one’s life journey. Moreover, Confucius stated, “It is people who can expand the Way; it is not the Way that expands people” (The Analects, 15.29). This emphasizes the active role of individuals in relation to the “Way”. It indicates that individuals have the responsibility and ability to promote and practice the “Way”, rather than simply relying on the “Way” to bring about changes. In the context of Confucian thought, this highlights the importance of personal efforts in aligning with the “Way”. Confucius’ understanding of the “Way” is closely intertwined with the attainment of freedom. His emphasis on the significance of the “Way” and the active role of individuals in promoting it implies that through earnestly seeking and adhering to the “Way”, one can reach a state where personal will and moral principles are in harmony, which is a form of freedom. Xu Fuguan’s view further elaborates on this connection, underlining the crucial role of the “Way” in the Confucian understanding of freedom. The “Way” represents the moral and ethical path that individuals should follow. It is a guiding principle that encompasses all aspects of life, from personal relationships to social and political interactions. By adhering to the “Way”, individuals are able to achieve a state of freedom that transcends personal gain and extends to the well-being of society. For example, in a family setting, fulfilling one’s filial duties is not seen as a restriction but as a way to exercise freedom within the framework of moral values. A child who respects and cares for their parents is not only acting in accordance with the “Way” but also experiencing a form of freedom that comes from fulfilling their moral obligations (Xu 2013).

2.2. Benevolence in Confucianism

Benevolence, denoted as “ren” in Chinese, lies at the very heart of Confucian ethics. In ancient China, especially during the Zhou Dynasty, the concept of benevolence was already an important part of the ruling ideology. The Zhou rulers emphasized the importance of ‘virtue’ in governance, and benevolence was a key aspect of this virtue. Confucius further developed this concept, emphasizing that benevolence should be extended to all people, regardless of their social status. This was a significant development in a society with strict hierarchical structures. In a feudal society, the noble class often had privileges, and the common people were in a disadvantaged position. Confucius’ idea of benevolence promoted a more inclusive and harmonious social environment by advocating that the powerful should show kindness and concern for the weak. For example, he taught that rulers should care about the livelihood of the people, and individuals should respect and help each other in daily life. This concept of benevolence was not only a moral requirement but also a way to maintain social stability and promote social harmony. It is a comprehensive virtue that encapsulates kindness, compassion, and a deep-seated concern for the well-being of others. As vividly illustrated in The Analects, when Fan Chi inquired about benevolence, Confucius simply replied, “Love others” (The Analects, 12.22). As Meng (2001) analyzed, “Benevolence is both a moral emotion and moral rationality, a unity of emotion and rationality. Its way of existence is the realm, and it must be manifested as real-world concern”. The unity of emotion and rationality in benevolence means that it is not just an emotional impulse but also a rational judgment. When one shows kindness to others out of benevolence, it is not only driven by the emotional empathy for others’ suffering but also based on a rational understanding of what is right and beneficial. For example, in the case of helping a poor person, the emotional aspect makes one feel compassion for their situation, while the rational aspect helps one determine the most appropriate way to help, such as providing food, offering job-seeking advice, or helping with education. In Liberal Confucianism, this unity guides individuals to make decisions and take actions that are both morally right and practically effective in promoting the well-being of others. It emphasizes that benevolence is not a simple act of kindness but a comprehensive consideration of the emotional and rational aspects, enabling people to better fulfill their moral obligations in different situations. Benevolence is not an abstract, nebulous concept; it is tangibly manifested in concrete actions. It can be seen in the simplest acts of daily life, such as offering a kind word to a friend in distress, helping an elderly person cross the street, or sharing resources with those in need.

In Confucianism, benevolence extends beyond the realm of personal relationships and permeates into the social and political spheres. A ruler who practices benevolence is expected to govern with compassion, wisdom, and a genuine concern for the people. This means caring for the basic needs of the populace, such as providing food, shelter, and security. It also involves promoting social harmony by implementing policies that reduce inequality and foster a sense of community. For instance, in ancient Confucian-influenced states, rulers might have established granaries to store food during times of plenty, which could then be distributed to the poor during famines. They would also have encouraged education to raise the moral and intellectual level of the people. Li (2006) pointed out in the research that the Confucian concept of benevolence pursues an overall harmony at the social level4. Rulers implement benevolent governance, pay attention to the material and spiritual needs of the people, reduce social conflicts, and promote the harmonious coexistence of all social strata. This further illustrates the core position and important role of benevolence in Confucian social and political thought.

Furthermore, benevolence is not a one-sided virtue. It thrives on reciprocity in human relationships. When individuals show benevolence towards others, they create an environment where others are more likely to respond in kind. This reciprocal nature of benevolence helps to build strong social bonds and a harmonious community. In a village, for example, if one family helps another during a difficult time, such as a harvest failure, the helped family is likely to return the favor in the future. This cycle of kindness and support is a practical manifestation of the Confucian concept of benevolence.

2.3. The Interconnection Between Freedom and Benevolence in Traditional Confucianism

Liang Tao once raised a question: “If Liberal Confucianism can be established, is it based on one fundamental principle or two? Is it based on benevolence and righteousness, or on freedom? Are benevolence, righteousness and freedom two sides of the same coin, or is there a relationship of primary-secondary or subordination between them?” (Su 2017). In traditional Confucian thought, freedom and benevolence are intricately intertwined, forming the bedrock of a harmonious and moral social order. The pursuit of freedom through moral self-cultivation is a crucial path to realizing benevolence. As Chan (2002) pointed out, when individuals engage in the arduous process of self-cultivation and attain the freedom to act in accordance with moral principles, they are better positioned to demonstrate benevolence towards others. A person who has achieved a high level of moral freedom has internalized the values of benevolence, righteousness, and propriety. Therefore, their actions are spontaneously guided by these values. For example, such an individual might be more inclined to volunteer in a community soup kitchen, donate to charity, or advocate for social justice. These acts are not only expressions of their moral freedom but also practical demonstrations of benevolence.

Conversely, benevolence serves as a guiding principle for the proper exercise of freedom. It sets clear boundaries for freedom, ensuring that one’s actions do not cause harm to others but instead contribute to the common good. If freedom is exercised without the constraint of benevolence, it could degenerate into self-centeredness and a disregard for the well-being of society. Benevolence reminds individuals that their freedom is not an end in itself but a means to create a more just and harmonious world. For instance, in a community, if someone has the freedom to start a business, benevolence would guide them to ensure that their business practices are ethical, do not exploit workers, and contribute positively to the local economy. In this way, freedom and benevolence in traditional Confucianism support and complement each other, creating a virtuous cycle that promotes the well-being of both individuals and society as a whole.

As G. Huang (2014) explained, “The basic view of ‘humanity’ in pre-Qin Confucianism was to cultivate ‘junzi’ (gentlemen) with moral cultivation”. In The Analects, Confucius said, “A gentleman is broad-minded and at ease; a petty man is always full of distress” (The Analects, 7.37). This vividly depicts the mental state of a “junzi”. A “junzi” is not only free from inner turmoil but also has the freedom to act in accordance with moral principles. This aligns with the modern understanding of personal growth and freedom, as it shows that through moral cultivation, one can achieve a state of mental well-being and moral freedom. Confucius further stated, “A gentleman is ashamed if his words are better than his deeds” (The Analects, 15.20). This emphasizes that a “junzi” is committed to moral practice. By matching words with deeds, a “junzi” not only demonstrates moral integrity but also exercises freedom within the framework of moral principles. Maintaining a pure and kind heart is the foundation for a “junzi” to pursue moral cultivation and achieve freedom. This indicates that the “junzi” ideal in Confucianism emphasizes moral growth and the achievement of a free and responsible state, which is consistent with modern ideas of personal growth and freedom. Confucianism’s pursuit of self-perfection is a continuous process, which corresponds to the concepts of individual growth and freedom in Liberal Confucianism. The ideal image of the “gentleman”, characterized by moral integrity and social responsibility, has inspired the concept of the model citizen in Liberal Confucianism. The traditional Confucian idea of constructing a harmonious society based on mutual respect and moral norms has also been adjusted accordingly in the context of modern times within Liberal Confucianism. This series of inheritances and evolutions of ideas has injected new vitality into traditional Confucian thought within the framework of Liberal Confucianism, further enriching the connotation of the relationship between freedom and benevolence. It also provides unique perspectives and valuable references for addressing the many problems faced by modern society.

3. The Reinterpretation of Freedom and Benevolence in Liberal Confucianism

3.1. Reinterpretation of Freedom

Liberal Confucianism is a response to the intricate interplay between traditional Confucian values and the exigencies of modern society. It reinterprets freedom in the context of modern values, opening up a path that connects the ancient wisdom of Confucianism with the ideals of contemporary liberalism. Based on the traditional Confucian understanding of moral cultivation, Liberal Confucianism incorporates elements of modern liberalism, such as individual rights and freedoms. Scholars like Guo (2017) and Zhou (2004) believe that when integrating traditional Confucianism and modern liberalism, Liberal Confucianism focuses on finding a balance between individual rights and social responsibilities5. It not only affirms the legitimacy of individuals’ pursuit of freedom but also emphasizes that individuals should assume their responsibilities towards society through moral cultivation. This balance gives the concept of freedom in Liberal Confucianism a unique value in modern society.

In the modern social and political landscape, Liberal Confucianism posits that individuals should possess the freedom to express their opinions and actively participate in democratic decision making. This is in line with the liberal emphasis on individual rights. For example, in a democratic society, citizens are encouraged to voice their views on various policies, whether it is related to environmental protection, education reform, or healthcare policies. They can do so through public forums, social media, or direct engagement with policymakers. But Liberal Confucianism also emphasizes that this freedom is not absolute. It should be exercised within the framework of moral and social responsibilities. When expressing opinions, individuals need to consider the potential impact on others and the society at large. Spreading false information or using freedom of speech to incite hatred or division goes against the moral and social responsibilities that Liberal Confucianism upholds.

This new interpretation of freedom aims to synthesize the best of both Confucian and liberal traditions. In the Confucian tradition, moral self-cultivation is a cornerstone. It is through self-cultivation that individuals develop a sense of moral judgment and an understanding of their roles and responsibilities in society. In modern liberalism, individual rights and freedoms are highly valued, allowing individuals to pursue their own goals and dreams. Liberal Confucianism seeks to combine these two aspects. It allows individuals to pursue their own development, whether it is in their careers, personal growth, or academic pursuits. At the same time, it encourages them to contribute to the well-being of society. For instance, a person may choose a career in environmental science. They can use their freedom to conduct research and develop innovative solutions to environmental problems, which not only benefits their own professional growth but also contributes to the betterment of society as a whole.

Moreover, in the economic sphere, Liberal Confucianism’s understanding of freedom has implications. It acknowledges that individuals should have the freedom to engage in economic activities, start businesses, and pursue wealth. However, this economic freedom should be guided by moral principles. Business owners, for example, should ensure fair treatment of their employees, ethical business practices, and contribute to the economic development of the community. This approach contrasts with a purely market-driven view of economic freedom, where profit-maximization may sometimes lead to exploitation or unethical behavior.

3.2. Reinterpretation of Benevolence

In the realm of Liberal Confucianism, benevolence undergoes a significant re-evaluation in light of modern society. It expands beyond the traditional boundaries of family and local community, which were the primary foci in traditional Confucianism. Liberal Confucianism embraces a more global and inclusive perspective, integrating the concept of global citizenship into the understanding of benevolence. Lin (2011) believes that Confucianism should “advance from ‘traditional Confucianism’ to ‘citizen Confucianism’”. He points out that the concept of benevolence in Confucianism can and should break through traditional limitations and incorporate the awareness of citizenship into it. Against the backdrop of globalization, this view of benevolence requires individuals not only to care about the well-being of those around them but also to be concerned about the fates of people in different countries and regions worldwide. They should actively engage in solving global issues and contribute to the future and destiny of humanity.

In the context of a globalized world, where people are more interconnected than ever, Liberal Confucianism calls for a sense of benevolence that transcends national boundaries. To address the concern about the practical applicability of benevolence, we can look at some real-world initiatives. For example, in community-based volunteer programs, individuals can actively engage with others in need. Through regular interactions, they can gradually develop a deeper understanding of the moral obligation of benevolence. In these programs, people learn to empathize with others’ situations, which is a practical manifestation of the moral emotion aspect of benevolence. At the same time, they rationally plan and organize activities to effectively meet the needs of the community, demonstrating the moral rationality. Additionally, in the corporate social responsibility field, many companies are now integrating benevolence-based values into their business models. They focus on fair trade, employee well-being, and environmental protection. This not only shows their moral awareness but also reflects the practical realization of benevolence in the economic sphere. These examples illustrate how the moral awareness of benevolence can be recognized and realized in practice, bridging the gap between the ideal and the practical. In the face of global challenges like poverty, which affects millions of people around the world, Liberal Confucianism encourages individuals to take action. This could involve supporting international aid organizations, advocating for policies that reduce global inequality, or volunteering in poverty-stricken areas. In the case of environmental protection, which is a global issue that requires collective action, individuals are urged to make environmentally friendly choices in their daily lives, such as reducing waste, conserving energy, and supporting sustainable development. These actions are seen as manifestations of a broader sense of benevolence towards all living beings and future generations.

This reinterpretation of benevolence also has implications for social justice. Liberal Confucianism emphasizes that benevolence should be extended to marginalized groups within society. In many modern societies, there are still groups that face discrimination, such as ethnic minorities, the disabled, and the LGBTQ+ community. Liberal Confucianism calls for individuals to show kindness, understanding, and support to these groups, and to work towards creating a more inclusive and just society. This could involve promoting equal opportunities in education and employment, and challenging discriminatory laws and practices.

Furthermore, in the digital age, the concept of benevolence in Liberal Confucianism has taken on new dimensions. With the rise of social media and online communities, individuals have new platforms to show benevolence. They can use these platforms to spread positive messages, offer support to those in need, and raise awareness about social issues. For example, crowdfunding campaigns on social media can be a powerful way to mobilize resources and help people facing various difficulties, whether these are medical emergencies or natural disasters.

3.3. The Transformed Relationship Between Freedom and Benevolence

Compared with traditional Confucian thought, in Liberal Confucianism, the relationship between freedom and benevolence has undergone more in-depth development and remarkable transformation. This transformation is reflected in a new understanding of the relationship between the two. Freedom is no longer merely regarded as a single means to achieve personal goals. As Zhao (2018) put it, “Benevolence is centered around love, and there is no greater love than the love for freedom, both one’s own freedom and the freedom of others”. This profoundly reveals the close and complex connection between freedom and benevolence. In the context of Liberal Confucianism, freedom is endowed with a richer connotation, and it is intertwined with benevolence. As Guo (2018) pointed out, “The life-emotion of benevolence is the origin of freedom”. From the perspective of Liberal Confucianism, the free choices and actions of individuals are expected to be guided by benevolence. While pursuing their own free development, individuals should respect and care about the freedom of others. Furthermore, this cherishing and safeguarding of freedom should be integrated into the concern for the well-being of all mankind, making freedom an important means to practice benevolence and promote social harmony.

As the concept of benevolence expands to a global level in Liberal Confucianism, individuals’ freedom of choice and action should be guided by this more inclusive sense of benevolence. For example, in the face of a global health crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals have the freedom to choose how they respond. But from a Liberal Confucian perspective, this freedom should be exercised with a sense of benevolence towards others. People should follow public health guidelines, such as wearing masks and practicing social distancing, not just for their own safety but also for the well-being of the global community.

At the same time, benevolence provides a moral foundation for the exercise of freedom. It acts as a safeguard against the potential negative consequences of unfettered freedom. In a globalized society, where actions can have far-reaching impacts, benevolence ensures that the pursuit of freedom does not lead to self-centeredness or harm to others. For instance, in the global trade context, if countries exercise their freedom to pursue economic growth without considering the well-being of other nations, it can lead to trade wars, exploitation, and environmental degradation. Benevolence in Liberal Confucianism would guide countries to engage in fair trade practices, consider the long-term impact on the global environment, and ensure that economic development benefits all.

In the cultural sphere, the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism also plays out in interesting ways. Artists, writers, and thinkers have the freedom to express themselves creatively. But this freedom should be used in a way that promotes benevolence. Their works can be a means to raise awareness about social issues, promote cross-cultural understanding, and inspire people to act with kindness and compassion. For example, a writer may use their freedom to write a novel that highlights the struggles of marginalized communities, which can evoke empathy and encourage readers to take action to support these communities. In this way, freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism interact and influence each other in a complex and dynamic manner, addressing the diverse social, cultural, and ethical issues of the modern world.

4. Comparison with Western Liberalism

4.1. Similarities in the Concept of Freedom

Both Liberal Confucianism and Western liberalism attach great importance to the value of individual freedom. However, their interpretations and underlying rationales show both similarities and differences.

In Western liberal thought, which has its genesis in Enlightenment philosophy, individual autonomy is a fundamental doctrine. John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government (Locke [1690] 1988), posited that individuals are endowed with natural rights, and the freedom to pursue their own interests within the framework of the law is seen as a cornerstone of a just society. This perspective has significantly influenced Western legal, political, and social institutions, forming a system that prioritizes the protection of individual liberties. For example, in Western liberal democracies, the right to freedom of speech is often protected as a negative right, ensuring that the government cannot censor or silence individuals. This emphasis on negative freedom, defined mainly as the absence of external constraints, has led to the development of legal and political systems aimed at safeguarding individuals from external interference.

Liberal Confucianism, emerging from a distinct cultural and philosophical heritage, also acknowledges the significance of individual development and the pursuit of a fulfilling life. As S. Hu (2015) pointed out, the Confucian concept of self-cultivation can be regarded as an individual’s pursuit of self-improvement, involving the refinement of moral character, intellectual capacity, and social skills. This shares similarities with the Western liberal idea of personal growth, where individuals strive to achieve their full potential. In both traditions, education is highly valued as a means to expand knowledge, develop skills, and enhance capabilities, thus facilitating personal growth.

However, there are crucial differences in their understandings of freedom. To better understand the difference, we can look at some specific aspects. In Western liberalism, freedom is often closely related to individual rights, such as the right to freedom of speech, which is mainly about protecting individuals from external interference. In contrast, in Confucianism, freedom is more about achieving a state of moral and spiritual harmony. For example, the freedom to pursue one’s own development in Confucianism is conditional on not violating moral norms and contributing to the well-being of the community. This shows that while both traditions value freedom, their focuses and connotations are quite different. The concept of freedom in Western liberalism originates from its traditions of individualism and rationalism, emphasizing the independence and autonomous choices of individuals (Mill [1859] 1966). In contrast, the view of freedom in Liberal Confucianism is rooted in Confucian moral and social ethics, focusing on the harmonious unity of the individual and society. These differences in philosophical origins lead to numerous disparities in their understandings and practices of freedom. Western liberalism frequently accentuates negative freedom. Berlin (1969) defined negative freedom as the negation of external impediments. From this perspective, as long as an individual is not hindered by external forces such as government oppression or social coercion, they are considered free. Ronald Dworkin (1977), within the context of Western liberalism, also proposed that the law should protect individuals from arbitrary power and ensure fairness, which is closely related to the protection of negative freedom.

In contrast, Liberal Confucianism combines negative freedom with positive freedom. Tu (2002) discussed that positive freedom in the Confucian context involves the ability to act in accordance with moral principles and contribute to the common good. It is not merely about the absence of external restrictions but also about having the internal capacity and moral guidance to make choices that benefit both oneself and society. In Liberal Confucianism, an individual’s freedom is closely tied to their moral development. For example, a person may have the negative freedom to choose a particular career, but from the perspective of positive freedom, they would choose a career path that aligns with moral values and contributes to the well-being of the community, such as a profession in public service or environmental protection.

Furthermore, both ideologies value the concept of equality to some extent. Western liberalism has long fought for equal rights among citizens, regardless of their social status, race, or gender. John Rawls, in his A Theory of Justice (Rawls 1971), constructed a social-contract model based on the premise of the “veil of ignorance”, emphasizing that the basic rights and freedoms of individuals should be given priority, and the realization of social justice mainly depends on the reasonable distribution and protection of individual rights. Liberal Confucianism, although emerging from a different cultural context, also emphasizes the equal potential of every individual in the pursuit of moral and intellectual growth. Mencius’ idea that “all men are potentially Yao and Shun 人皆可以為堯舜” (Mencius, 6B2) reflects this belief in the equal capacity of individuals to achieve moral excellence. Contemporary Western thought, however, has witnessed new explorations of freedom that deviate from the classical liberal framework. Philosopher Arendt (1961), for instance, posits that “The field where freedom has always been known, not as a problem, to be sure, but as a fact of everyday life, is the political realm”. This perspective emphasizes the significance of human interaction and collective action in the realization of freedom. Arendt believed that freedom is closely linked to the public sphere and human relationships. In a political community, when people come together and engage in joint actions, freedom emerges. It is not an isolated individual pursuit but is realized through the dynamic of interpersonal relationships and shared endeavors.

Compared with Arendt’s view, Confucian freedom also emphasizes the connection between the individual and society. However, Confucian freedom is rooted in moral cultivation. It holds that through moral self-cultivation, individuals can achieve a state of freedom that is in harmony with moral principles and social order. For example, Confucius’ idea of “At seventy, I could follow my heart’s desire without transgressing moral norms” reflects this pursuit of freedom within the framework of moral values. While Arendt focuses on the public sphere and collective action, Confucianism emphasizes the internal moral transformation of the individual as the foundation for realizing freedom in social relationships. This comparison further reveals the unique significance of Confucian freedom, which combines moral self-improvement with social harmony, offering a distinct approach to understanding and achieving freedom in the context of human relationships.

4.2. Differences in the Concept of Benevolence

Western liberalism lacks a concept that is precisely equivalent to Confucian benevolence. Although Western ethics also emphasizes values such as altruism and social responsibility, these are often grounded in different philosophical frameworks. In Western liberalism, social responsibility frequently stems from contractual agreements or legal obligations. As Weber (1930) analyzed in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, the development of Western society has been influenced by a rational-legal approach, where social responsibilities are often defined and enforced through contracts and laws. For example, in a business context, companies may be legally required to follow certain ethical standards in their operations, and their sense of social responsibility is often shaped by these legal requirements.

Bell (2017) pointed out that the social responsibility in Western liberalism often rests on the basis of contracts and laws, being highly utilitarian and externally binding. In contrast, Confucian benevolence is driven by the inherent morality of human nature and places greater emphasis on emotional and moral consciousness. This leads to significant differences in their attitudes towards social responsibility and their behavioral patterns. As Meng (2001) elaborated in his study of Confucian virtue ethics, benevolence is a fundamental aspect of human nature, and it is expressed through acts of kindness, compassion, and a genuine concern for others. A Confucian-inspired person would show benevolence to others out of an internal moral imperative, not because of a legal obligation.

Liberal Confucianism’s concept of benevolence further expands this traditional view with a global and inclusive perspective. In contrast to the more individual-centered approach in Western liberalism, Liberal Confucianism’s understanding of benevolence emphasizes the interconnection of all beings. It calls for a sense of responsibility not only towards one’s immediate community but also towards people around the world. In the face of global issues like poverty and environmental degradation, Liberal Confucianism encourages individuals to take action based on a sense of global benevolence. This stands in contrast to Western liberalism, where responses to such global issues may be more focused on self-interest or legal obligations.

4.3. Complementary Aspects

Despite these differences, there is a significant potential for complementarity between Liberal Confucianism and Western liberalism. Western liberalism’s well-developed legal and institutional frameworks can offer valuable references for Liberal Confucianism in ensuring the protection of individual rights. Montesquieu ([1748] 1989) in The Spirit of the Laws expounded on the importance of a system of checks and balances in government to prevent the abuse of power. Liberal Confucianism can draw on these ideas to strengthen its own understanding of governance and the protection of individual liberties. For example, it can incorporate elements of Western-style legal systems to safeguard the rights of individuals while still maintaining its focus on moral values.

On the other hand, Liberal Confucianism’s emphasis on moral values and the relationship between freedom and benevolence can provide a more human-centered perspective to Western liberalism. Western liberalism sometimes faces issues such as moral decline and social fragmentation. The Confucian focus on moral cultivation and the interconnectedness of individuals can help address these problems. In the area of environmental protection, for instance, Western liberalism often relies on legal regulations and market-based mechanisms. Liberal Confucianism can contribute by highlighting the moral obligation of individuals towards nature. It can encourage people to view nature not just as a resource for economic exploitation but as something that deserves care and respect out of a sense of benevolence. This can lead to a more holistic approach to environmental protection that combines legal and economic measures with moral considerations.

In the realm of education, Western liberalism’s emphasis on cultivating independent thinking and critical abilities can be integrated with Liberal Confucianism’s focus on moral education. By incorporating Western educational methods, like project-based learning that promotes independent exploration and problem solving, into the Confucian-inspired educational system, students can develop both intellectual acumen and moral integrity. At the same time, Confucian-based character-building activities such as community service can be used to help students internalize moral values and a sense of social responsibility.

In the field of international relations, Western liberalism’s emphasis on international cooperation based on mutual interests and treaties can be combined with Liberal Confucianism’s concept of “harmony among nations” (和而不同). This could lead to more effective and harmonious international relations, where countries respect each other’s sovereignty while also working together for common global challenges. For example, in dealing with international trade, instead of solely focusing on self-interest and contractual obligations, countries can draw on the Confucian spirit of benevolence and harmony to seek win-win solutions that take into account the well-being of all parties involved.

In conclusion, by leveraging the strengths of both Liberal Confucianism and Western liberalism, we can strive for a more just, sustainable, and harmonious global community. Their complementary nature has the potential to create a more comprehensive approach to various aspects of society, from governance and education to environmental protection and international relations.

5. Practical Implications of the Freedom–Benevolence Relationship in Liberal Confucianism

5.1. In Political Philosophy

Within the realm of political philosophy, the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism offers a highly innovative and inspiring perspective on governance concepts.

Angle (2012) believes that early Confucianism regarded “Tian” or Heaven as the source of authority, and monarchs ruled based on the “Mandate of Heaven”. He stated, “it is crucial that the clearest communication of Tian’s intentions comes through the actions of the ‘people (min)’, whose well-being thus forms the bedrock of Confucian politics”. Bai (2009), on the other hand, examines the relationship between Confucianism and democracy based on Mencius’ thoughts, providing important references for understanding the connotation of Liberal Confucianism in the political field6. He argues that Confucianism can recognize a thin version of liberal democracy. Mencius advocated that the government should be responsible for the material and moral lives of the people, which aligns with the accountability of a democratic government. Moreover, the elitist tendency in Confucianism can be combined with Rawls’ difference principle. This allows for the recognition of certain democratic institutional arrangements while ensuring the basic interests of the people. This reflects that in the political construction of Liberal Confucianism, it does not completely reject modern democratic elements. Instead, it attempts to integrate and reshape them based on Confucian thoughts.

However, Confucianism has limitations on democratic participation and shows a greater inclination towards a mixed polity of elitism and democracy, as exemplified by the concept of “Confucian China”. This differs from the pure democratic concept in the West. This indicates that the relationship between Confucianism and democracy is not simply one of opposition or coincidence. Instead, it requires in-depth exploration within specific theoretical frameworks and practical contexts. Such exploration is of great significance for the development of Liberal Confucianism in political philosophy. It helps us clarify the unique values and potential limitations of Liberal Confucianism in democratic political practices.

From the vantage point of leadership, Cheng’s (2011) research furnishes a meticulous analysis of the behavioral characteristics of leaders influenced by Confucian benevolence during the policy-formulation and implementation processes. They not only pay attention to the material needs of the people but also focus on enhancing the people’s moral qualities and social cohesion. This leadership style helps to create a favorable social atmosphere and promotes the harmonious development of society, providing strong practical support for the application of Liberal Confucianism in political philosophy. For example, to ensure that all citizens, regardless of their social backgrounds, can access high-quality educational resources, leaders will actively invest in the construction of educational infrastructure, vigorously recruit and carefully train dedicated teachers, and meticulously design a curriculum system that can both impart knowledge and cultivate moral character. In the field of healthcare, they are committed to building a comprehensive and accessible medical system to ensure that vulnerable groups can receive timely treatment when needed.

From the perspective of citizen participation, in the social and political thought of Liberal Confucianism, the concept of “freedom” has rich manifestations. In the area of democratic governance, Liberal Confucianism actively promotes citizens’ enthusiastic participation in political affairs based on Confucian values. Zhang (1995) pointed out that the community compacts established by Lü Dajun and Wang Yangming, representatives of Song-Ming Confucianism, “became a way to persuade people on how to become good citizens”. Citizens’ participation in politics should not be solely based on self-interest considerations but should rather stem from concern for the overall well-being of society. This is highly consistent with the Confucian principle of “ren” (benevolence), which emphasizes the close-knit relationship between individuals and the importance of social harmony. At the same time, as Zhang (1995) emphasized, inspired by freedom, citizens are encouraged to actively engage in political affairs with a strong sense of social responsibility. This is a proactive pursuit of the public interest. In a political system influenced by Liberal Confucianism, citizens are no longer just voters in elections but are also active participants in the community decision-making process. They actively participate in local town hall meetings, deeply engage in public policy discussions, and do their best to contribute to community development. For example, when local governments plan new infrastructure projects, citizens inspired by the values of Liberal Confucianism and with a sense of social responsibility will fully express their opinions and comprehensively consider the potential impacts of the projects on different groups in the community, such as the elderly, the disabled, and low-income families.

In the quotidian social milieu, Liberal Confucianism inspires individuals to mold their unique personalities, pursue their ideals, and simultaneously, assiduously maintain amicable relationships with others. For example, in community activities, individuals are encouraged to actively express their views and contribute to the public interest according to their abilities. This corresponds to the concept of “li” (ritual norms), which guides individuals to respect others and behave appropriately in interpersonal interactions. The organic integration of freedom and social harmony constitutes the key characteristic of the manifestation of “freedom” in social and political life, giving birth to a social ecosystem in which individuals can thrive and also contribute to the greater good.

This governance model challenges the traditional Western political model, which often focuses on strict separation of powers and a more individualistic approach to politics. In contrast, as Gan (2017) pointed out, by integrating the values of freedom and benevolence, Confucianism can provide a framework for constructing a more inclusive and morally-based political system. It advocates that leaders have noble virtues and citizens actively participate, creating a political environment that places the public interest first. Policy making aims to benefit the entire community and promote social harmony and justice.

5.2. In Education

In the field of education, the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism provides guidance for cultivating students. In this context, education should not be confined solely to the imparting of academic knowledge. On the contrary, in educational practice, the values of freedom and benevolence should be integrated into curriculum design and teaching activities. Through diverse teaching methods, students are guided to cultivate their innovative spirit during the process of free exploration. At the same time, by participating in benevolence-based practical activities such as community service, students can develop their sense of social responsibility and teamwork skills. For example, in a school influenced by Liberal Confucianism, students have a wide range of extracurricular activities to choose from, including art, music, sports, and community service. This enables them to discover their hobbies and develop various skills beyond traditional academic courses, thus achieving the all-around development of students.

At the same time, students are taught the value of benevolence. Through various educational activities, they learn the importance of kindness, compassion, and respect for others. Community service programs play a crucial role in this regard. For instance, students may participate in volunteer activities at local nursing homes, where they interact with the elderly, listen to their stories, and help them with daily tasks. Through these experiences, students learn how to exercise their freedom in a way that benefits others. They understand that their actions can have a positive impact on the lives of those around them, thus cultivating a sense of social responsibility.

This educational approach aims to produce well-rounded individuals who are not only academically proficient but also morally upright and capable of contributing to society. Such individuals are equipped with the knowledge and skills to succeed in their chosen fields, but they also have a strong moral compass that guides their actions. They are more likely to be empathetic, collaborative, and concerned about the well-being of others. In a globalized world, these qualities are highly valuable, enabling individuals to build positive relationships, work effectively in teams, and contribute to the betterment of society at large.

5.3. In Global Governance

In the context of global governance, the relationship between freedom and benevolence has far-reaching and significant implications. The concept of benevolence, with its global perspective, serves as a powerful reminder for countries to consider the common good when making decisions, as Tu (2009) pointed out7. In an era of increasing globalization, countries are interconnected in various ways, and decisions made by one nation can have a profound impact on others. For example, in the face of climate change, which is a global challenge that threatens the survival of the entire planet, countries need to work together. A country guided by the values of Liberal Confucianism would not only consider its own economic development but also its moral obligation towards other nations and future generations. It would take proactive measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, invest in renewable energy sources, and support climate-change adaptation efforts in developing countries.

At the same time, the freedom of each nation to pursue its own development should be exercised within the framework of global responsibility. And countries should not pursue development at the expense of others. Instead, they should strive for a balance between their own interests and the well-being of the global community. When addressing global issues like poverty, countries can draw on the values of freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism. They can use their freedom to develop their economies in a sustainable way while fulfilling their moral obligation of benevolence towards other nations. This could involve providing financial aid, sharing technological expertise, and promoting fair trade policies to help lift people out of poverty and create a more just and equitable world.

6. Challenges, Future Prospects, and Conclusions

In the exploration of Liberal Confucianism and its unique take on the relationship between freedom and benevolence, it is essential to consider both the challenges it faces and the potential it holds for the future. This analysis not only helps in understanding the current state of this philosophical and ethical system but also paves the way for its further development and application in a global context.

One of the most acute challenges confronting Liberal Confucianism is cross-cultural adaptation. As it attempts to spread across different regions with diverse cultural backgrounds, it must find ways to resonate with local values. In Western cultures, which have a strong inclination towards individualism, the concept of benevolence in Liberal Confucianism, with its emphasis on the collective well-being and the interconnectedness of all beings, may face significant hurdles in being fully understood and accepted. For example, in Western societies where the focus is often on individual rights and self-interest, the idea of sacrificing personal gain for the common good, as advocated by Liberal Confucianism, might seem counterintuitive. Similarly, in some non-Western cultures, the integration of modern liberal elements into the traditional Confucian framework may encounter resistance. Traditionalists in these cultures might be hesitant to accept new ideas that appear to diverge from long-standing cultural norms. To bridge these cultural divides, a subtle comprehension of both the source and the target cultures is essential.

To surmount these challenges, there is an urgent imperative for more cross-cultural and interdisciplinary research. Scholars from different fields and cultural backgrounds should collaborate to find common ground and develop innovative ways to communicate the values of Liberal Confucianism. This could involve conducting in-depth studies on how the concepts of freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism can be translated and applied in different cultural settings. For instance, by comparing and contrasting the ethical systems of different cultures, researchers can identify areas where Liberal Confucianism can offer unique insights and where it can learn from other traditions.

Looking ahead, future research on the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism should focus on several key aspects. First, more in-depth studies are required to explore how these values can be effectively implemented in different social and political systems. This includes analyzing the practical implications of Liberal Confucianism in various governance models, from democratic republics to socialist countries. Second, long-term research should be carried out to assess the impact of these values on social and cultural development. For example, how does the practice of Liberal Confucianism influence the social fabric, family values, and educational systems over time? That such research is crucial for understanding the long-term viability and significance of Liberal Confucianism. Finally, efforts should be made to promote international cooperation in the study of Liberal Confucianism. By bringing together scholars from different backgrounds, a rich exchange of ideas and experiences can take place, which will contribute to the further development of this field.

In conclusion, this paper has delved into the complex relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism. The concept of freedom in Confucianism, though different from the Western concept, has its own rich connotations. It is intertwined with moral cultivation, social harmony, and a sense of responsibility. Through this exploration, we hope to have clarified the unique meaning of freedom in Confucian terminology for readers. These two values, deeply rooted in traditional Confucian thought, have been reimagined and developed in the modern context. The relationship between them in Liberal Confucianism is intricate and dynamic, with each value influencing and complementing the other. Compared with Western liberalism, Liberal Confucianism offers unique perspectives on freedom and benevolence, and there is potential for complementarity between the two. In practical applications, the relationship between freedom and benevolence in Liberal Confucianism has far-reaching implications in political philosophy, education, and global governance. Despite the challenges in cross-cultural adaptation, the exploration of this relationship in Liberal Confucianism holds great promise for the future. By continuing to study and understand these values, we can contribute to the development of a more inclusive, harmonious, and just global community. Future research and practice should be dedicated to further exploring the practical implications of these values and promoting their application in diverse cultural and social contexts. This will not only enrich the academic discourse but also have a positive impact on real-world issues, leading to a more enlightened and morally grounded society.