The Way to Immortality: The Theory of Human Nature and Destiny of Ge Hong, a Religious Thinker

Abstract

Ge Hong, a religious thinker, has a philosophy of life that integrates Confucianism and Daoism that is reflected in his theory of human nature and destiny. It is embodied in several related concepts. First, “human nature and destiny are inherently natural”. This means that human nature and destiny are inevitable and determined. On the one hand, Ge Hong denied this concept to demonstrate the possibility of immortality; on the other hand, he accepted it in terms of whether an individual could become an immortal. This gave his thought a distinct dualist feature. Second, the “law of human nature and destiny” served as the foundation for discussing the rationality of the cultivation of immortality during the Wei and Jin Dynasties. Ge Hong also used the law to demonstrate the rationality of the way to immortality. Third, the essence of the way to immortality can be presented through the theory of human nature and destiny, which is to transform humans into immortals through certain means, known as “transforming life and destiny”.

As a religious thinker, Ge Hong 葛洪 provides us with a typical example that showcases the multidimensional images and forms of bioethics and life wisdom in Chinese history. Although Ge Hong was a Daoist in the “immortal tradition” (shenxian daojiao 神仙道教) and pursued immortality through cultivation as the ultimate goal of life, he did not ignore or reject the ideological elements and value orientations of Confucianism. Instead, Confucianism and Daoism intertwined with each other, jointly shaping the overall outlook of Ge Hong’s bioethics and life philosophy.

There has already been a substantial amount of research on Ge Hong, and it is widely acknowledged that his thought integrates Confucian and Daoist elements. However, the relationship between his “Daoist” perspective and the prevailing health-preserving practices of that time, as well as the precise meaning of his “Confucian” aspects, seem to have been somewhat overlooked. More importantly, as a religious thinker whose fundamental aim was to become an immortal through cultivation，most existing research on Ge Hong has taken a Daoist perspective as its starting point, thereby overlooking the broader context of Chinese philosophy and the intellectual trends of the Wei and Jin periods. This has led to certain deficiencies in our understanding of Ge Hong. Specifically, Ge Hong’s philosophy of life is embodied in a series of concepts related to “human nature” (xing 性) and “destiny” (ming 命). Firstly, “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” (xingmingziran 性命自然) implies that “human nature” and “destiny” are inevitable; secondly, the “law of human nature and destiny” (xingmingzhili 性命之理) suggests that “human nature” and “destiny” are determined by natural law; and thirdly, “transforming life and destiny” (yixingming 易性命) means that by altering their lives, humans can attain immortality and become deities.1 This article attempts to organize Ge Hong’s theory of human nature and destiny through the aforementioned notions and thereby present the rich interactions among the three major religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism during the Wei and Jin 魏晉 Dynasties concerning bioethics and life wisdom.

1. The Philosophy of Ge Hong from the Perspective of the Integration of Confucianism and Daoism

Ge Hong of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was not only an important figure in the history of Daoism who made indispensable contributions and had a profound impact on the theorization, systematization, and even metaphysicization of Daoism,2 his scholarship also exhibited a complex fusion of Confucianism and Daoism. Fabrizio Pregadio pointed out that Ge Hong is aware that his attempt to make a subject such as the search for immortality admissible in the eyes of a Confucian exposes major points of contention between Confucianism and Daoism. Ge Hong approaches this issue from two main angles: first, Confucius himself acknowledged the primacy of Laozi, and, second, one cannot expect that the Confucian classics cover every dimension of human experience (Pregadio 2020, p. 432). The most significant works of Ge Hong that have been handed down through the ages are the Baopuzi neipian 抱樸子內篇 and the Baopuzi waipian 抱樸子外篇, which also serve as the primary basis for our discussions on his thought. Regarding the purpose of these two books, Ge Hong himself stated,

The Neipian discuss matters of immortals, medicinal recipes, supernatural transformations, health preservation and longevity, as well as warding off evil and averting disasters, belonging to Daoism; while the Waipian deals with human gains and losses, societal judgments, and belongs to Confucianism.” (Autobiography)

(Yang 2021, translated by the author)

其《內篇》言神仙方藥、鬼怪變化、養生延年、禳邪卻禍之事，屬道家；《外篇》言人間得失，世事臧否，屬儒家。《抱樸子外篇·自敘》

In other words, the theme of the Neipian revolves around the Daoist teachings of immortals, while the Waipian embodies Confucian writings. Regardless of how we categorize Ge Hong’s thought, it is ultimately appropriate to describe him as a figure who integrated both Confucianism and Daoism (specifically, the Daoism of Immortals).3

The understanding of “Daoism” (daojia 道家) during the Six Dynasties generally encompassed multiple dimensions, and becoming an immortal is just one of them.4 Judging from Ge Hong’s Neipian, the pursuit of immortality is the undeniable core and backbone. This reflects the emphasis people placed on individual life during that time, as well as the desire it sparked for prolonging life and even achieving immortality. It is generally acknowledged that the Wei and Jin Dynasties were marked by a prevailing ideology of revering life (zhongsheng 重生) and valuing existence (guisheng 貴生), with the literati of the time placing significant emphasis on health preservation. In his famous 1927 lecture given in Guangzhou, The Manners of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and Their Relationship with Literature, Medicine, and Alcohol (Weijin fengdu ji wenzhang yu yao ji jiu zhi guanxi 魏晉風度及文章與藥及酒之關係), Lu Xun 魯迅 illuminated various phenomena, such as the obsession of Wei and Jin literati with consuming wushi san 五石散 (“five minerals powder”). Another crucial factor is the gradual popularity of Daoism among aristocratic families since the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Many of the renowned literati from the Wei and Jin periods we know today were Daoist believers and actively engaged in health-preservation and immortality-seeking practices. Ge Hong stands as a prime example.5 Medicine and health preservation constitute a significant aspect of Ge Hong’s scholarship that cannot be overlooked.6 No one can deny Ge Hong’s contributions to the history of traditional Chinese medicine.

The Jinshu 晉書, the history of the Jin Dynasty, comments on Ge Hong: “He was proficient in medical arts and all his writings were meticulously scrutinized for accuracy, displaying both talent and profuse knowledge.” (Biography of Ge Hong) (Fang 1974, p. 1911) (兼綜練醫術，凡所著撰，皆精核是非，而才章富贍。）. The hallmark of Ge Hong’s medical practice lies in his emphasis on clinical experience, as evidenced by the prescriptions he recorded, all of which were tested before being recorded (yi shi erhou lu zhi 以試而後錄之). This is consistent with his repeated emphasis on efficacy (xiaoyan 效驗) in his teachings on the Way of the Immortals. The Miscellanea states,

In the hundred scrolls which I have compiled, Yu han fang, the names of illnesses have been differentiated and placed in a sequence by categories to avoid confusion. Ninety-three of my scrolls circulate independently and are explicit; they are concise and easy to consult. In the whole mass of one hundred scrolls you will find mention of all medicines and a full treatment of all serious illnesses. Any household possessing this book can dispense with the services of a physician, for physicians generally transmit a tradition in which there may be renown but there is no substance.

(Ware 1966, p. 254)

余所撰百卷，名曰《玉函方》，皆分別病名，以類相續，不相雜錯。其《救卒》三卷，皆單行徑易，約而易驗，籬陌之間，顧眄皆藥，眾急之病，無不畢備，家有此方，可不用醫。

In other words, after completing the hundred-volume Yuhanfang 玉函方 (taken from Neipian), or “medicinal recipes contained in a jade box”, Ge Hong recognized its unwieldy size, the potential unavailability of some ingredients, and the inconvenience it posed for emergency treatments. Thus, he condensed the essentials into three volumes titled Zhouhou jiuji fang 肘後救急方 (also taken from Neipian), or “A first-aid manual kept at hand’s reach”. This is a highly noteworthy phenomenon, as compared to the transcendent and enigmatic nature of Daoism-related spiritual pursuits, Ge Hong’s medical approach is explicitly designed to be simple, practical, and comprehensible, with the aim of benefiting the greatest number of people to the fullest extent possible. The worldly and inclusive nature of medicine stands in stark contrast to the otherworldly and secretive aspects of religion, exemplified vividly in the life of Ge Hong, who embodied both identities.

As a Daoist, Ge Hong’s ultimate life’s work and intellectual goal was immortality. To a large extent, it is for this reason that Ge Hong held a strong critical attitude towards the metaphysics of the Wei and Jin 魏晉玄學 that was contemporary with him. Campany accurately pointed out Ge Hong’s attitude towards the metaphysics of the Wei and Jin:

A pointed, repeatedly voiced opposition to the entire repertoire of ideas, practices, narratives, and personages that had come to be associated with the by then loaded expressions xuanxue 玄学 and qingtan 清谈 life. Significantly for my purposes, it is against this complex of values that both Gan Bao and Ge Hong set their own.

(Campany 2005, p. 183)

Based on his criticism of the metaphysics of the Wei and Jin, Ge Hong further criticized the understanding of Lao-Zhuang philosophy by the metaphysicians. He said,

Only a few Taoist writings come from Yellow Emperor and Lao Tan themselves; most are enlargements upon the personal knowledge and experience of later curiosity-seekers, and their bundles and scrolls have accumulated like a mountain. … The Five Thousand Words (Tao te ching) may actually come from Lao Tan, but it is only a general discussion and a rough outline of our topic. Its contents in no way allow a complete exposition of the matter from beginning to end that could be employed as support for our pursuit. Merely to recite this classic blindly without securing the essential process would be to undergo useless toil. How much worse in the case of texts inferior to Tao te ching! Such persons as Hsin Chin (Wen tzu), Chuang Chou, and Governor of the Pass, Yin Hsi, prepared writings that may well be based upon Yellow Emperor and Lao Tan, but they expound the modeling of ourselves upon God (Mystery and Uncommittedness) only in general terms and are very far from speaking exhaustively. They may equate death and life and say there is no difference between them, treat existence as toil and death as repose, but they are an uncalculable distance away from the problems of divinity and geniehood. Why should we toy with them? Their metaphors and similes can be garnered as rubble to fill unexpected deficiencies. Isn’t it a pity, though, that the eloquent rogues and base scoundrels of these latter days should be allowed refuge in Lao Tan and Chuang Chou. (Resolving Hesitations)

(Ware 1966, pp. 141/142)

道書之出於黃老者，蓋少許耳，率多後世之好事者，各以所知見而滋長，遂令篇卷至於山積。……又五千文雖出老子，然皆泛論較略耳。其中了不肯首尾全舉其事，有可承按者也。但暗誦此經，而不得要道，直為徒勞耳，又況不及者乎？至於文子、莊子、關令尹喜之徒，其屬文筆，雖祖述黃老，憲章玄虛，但演其大旨，永無至言。或複齊死生，謂無異以存活為徭役，以殂歿為休息，其去神仙，已千億裡矣，豈足耽玩哉？其寓言譬喻，猶有可采，以供給碎用，充禦卒乏，至使末世利口之奸佞，無行之弊子，得以老莊為窟藪，不亦惜乎？《釋滯》

In Ge Hong’s view, the highest-grade Daoist texts are undoubtedly the scriptures detailing how to cultivate immortality, particularly how to refine elixirs. Based on this, Ge Hong believed that reading the Daodejing 道德經 would be futile without grasping its essentials and held a dismissive attitude towards classical texts like the Wenzi 文子 and Zhuangzi 莊子, as they deviate from the theme of pursuing longevity and immortality and do not delve into the supreme truths of Daoism. Furthermore, some of their concepts, such as equating life and death (qi sisheng 齊死生), are diametrically opposed to the path of immortals. The phrase “the eloquent rogues” (moshi likou zhi jianning 末世利口之奸佞) in this passage refers to the group of Wei–Jin celebrities who grounded their ideologies in the classics of the Daodejing and Zhuangzi and indulged in idle talk as a fashion. In Ge Hong’s opinion, these Wei–Jin celebrities flaunted their eloquence, possessed deplorable characters, and were unworthy of drawing from the teachings of the Daodejing and Zhuangzi as their theoretical source.7 In the Waipian, Ge Hong expresses even more intense criticism towards the Weijin metaphysics and the famous scholars of that period. This is primarily focused on Confucian ethical and moral concepts as well as ideals related to life.

In fact, the Confucianism that Ge Hong’s Autobiography identifies with is an eclectic blend incorporating the intellectual elements of various pre-Qin philosophies, such as Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, and Legalism. This is not difficult to comprehend, as Ge Hong, being a native of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, lived in an era considerably distant from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. By then, the thoughts of these pre-Qin philosophers had undergone a lengthy process of interaction.8 Consequently, the Confucianism embraced by Ge Hong was, in essence, a product of this interaction. Thus, rather than perceiving the distinction between the Neipian and Waipian as a dichotomy between Confucianism and Daoism, as Ge Hong himself suggests, it is more accurate to view it as differing emphases on social engagement (rushi 入世) versus withdrawal from society (chushi 出世). The content of the Waipian is rather diverse and complex and the topics mentioned, such as “proper conduct of rulers and ministers” (jundao chenji 君道臣節), encompass a vast array of subjects that cannot be confined within the narrow confines of Confucianism as taught by Confucius and Mencius. Therefore, it is appropriate to revise the categorization of Ge Hong’s Waipian from “Confucianism” to “social engagement” to highlight the themes related to the governance of the state, the stability of social ethics, and the cultivation and realization of individual moral character in contrast to the religious withdrawal aimed at immortality and transcendence.

2. “Human Nature and Destiny Are Inherently Natural”

“Human nature and destiny are inherently natural” was an important concept widely prevalent during the Wei and Jin periods that was accepted and shared by thinkers of different schools and religions, and it also became an important foundation and basis for various interactions among the three major religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in ancient China. Based on the idea that “human nature and destiny are inherently natural”, thinkers engaged in rich and diverse discussions. Why did this concept generate such a broad theoretical space? It is not difficult to understand that “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” is formed by connecting two core concepts of Chinese philosophy, namely, “human nature and destiny” (xingming 性命) and “nature” (ziran 自然), with the latter serving as an attributive to modify and define the former. Therefore, based on the multiple dimensions of the issue of “human nature and destiny” in Chinese philosophy and the rich connotations and evolution of the concept of “nature”, “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” also has a broad scope for interpretation.

A prominent feature of the “nature” concept during the Wei and Jin periods was the great emphasis placed on its inevitable and unchangeable connotations (Refer to Tang 1983, p. 305; Wang 2023, pp. 39–96). Consequently, under the shadow of the inevitable concept of “nature”, demonstrating the possibility of becoming an immortal became a paramount issue faced by Daoism. We can approach this question by referring to the theories of health-preservation practitioners of that time. It is not difficult to understand that if life is predetermined by necessity and cannot be interfered with by human efforts, health preservation would become a meaningless pseudo-issue. So, how did health-preservation practitioners address such a problem? Ji Kang 嵇康, one of the “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove”, was an active practitioner of health-preservation activities.9 Naturally, he believed that humans could preserve and extend their lives through certain methods and means. Based on this premise, he established the goal of health preservation at the beginning of his essay On Health Preservation (yangsheng lun 養生論):

Some people may say that immortals can learn and achieve immortality through study; Or, the upper limit of human lifespan is 120 years, which is the same in ancient and modern times. Both of the above viewpoints are incorrect. I am trying to argue this issue. Although the immortals are not visible, their existence is recorded in books and passed down through history, so it is certain that they exist. It seems that they are particularly influenced by extraordinary talent, which is natural and cannot be achieved by accumulated knowledge. As for the proper guidance and nurturing, one can enjoy a natural span of life from hundreds to thousands of years.

(Dai 2014, translated by the author)

世或有謂神仙可以學得，不死可以力致者；或云上壽百二十，古今所同，過此以往，莫非妖妄者。此皆兩失其情，請試粗論之。夫神仙雖不目見，然記籍所載，前史所傳，較而論之，其有必矣。似特受異氣，稟之自然，非積學所能致也。至於導養得理，以盡性命，上獲千餘歲，下可數百年，可有之耳。

On the one hand, Ji Kang did not agree that people could become immortal through certain means. This actually suspends the issue of cultivation and brings about a practical attitude of not caring about cultivation. It must be noted that Ji Kang did not deny the existence of immortals but only believed that whether one could become immortal was determined by one’s talent. This reflects, in a certain sense, the concept in Wei–Jin metaphysics that sages cannot be regarded as an object of study and that sagehood cannot be attained, and it is in significant conflict with the Daoist belief that immortals are achieved through accumulated learning (Refer to Tang 2006, p. 291 and Chen 1996, pp. 47–50). Regarding this issue, Puett pointed out that, importantly for Ge Hong, there is no way for this clarity to be cultivated among humans; it is simply an endowment (cai 才) that some humans happen to possess (Puett 2007, p. 98). And Shen argued that the tradition of the earthly journey of the sages in Ge Hong’s Shenxianzhuan 神仙傳, “biographies of xian 仙 immortals”, displays a pattern of human-centered sagehood instead of the divine-endorsed type (Shen 2024).

On the other hand, Ji Kang did not accept the secular concept that the upper limit of the human life span is 120 years but instead determined the possible limit of the human life span to be between hundreds and over a thousand years. Such a limit and the comparison with the relatively short life span of real humans create an attractive space for the extension of human life. Therefore, health preservation becomes a meaningful issue with the goal of “fully realizing human nature and destiny” (jin xingming 盡性命). Regarding the inherent meaning of nature, Ji Kang interprets it as a “range of values” rather than a “fixed number” or a “random number”, thereby creating space for health preservation. Within this range from hundreds to over a thousand years, there is a great possibility of change in the span of a human life and health preservation is possible. This range is inherently inevitable and unchangeable, meaning that no matter how hard humans try, they cannot exceed it. In this way, Ji Kang reasonably resolved the contradiction between the inevitability of nature and the possibility of health preservation.

Compared with Ji Kang, Ge Hong presents a twisted duality regarding the idea that “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” and the resulting question of whether health preservation and immortality are possible. On the one hand, in order to establish the Daoism of Immortals, Ge Hong clearly opposed the idea that “human nature and destiny are inherently natural”:

Interlocutor: “The existence of long-lived persons like Old P’eng is comparable to that of the pine and thuya among trees. It is something natural, hardly something attained through study”.

Ko [Ge Hong]: “Nobody in creation is cleverer than the human being. Possessed of the most accessible techniques, he can make all creation his servant; having attained the deepest, he can enjoy Fullness of Life and everlasting vision. Since he knows that the best medicines are potent for extending his years, he takes them in his search for geniehood. Knowing the great age attained by tortoises and cranes, he imitates their calisthenics so as to augment his own life span. Notice that the branches and leaves of the pine and thuya are different from those of trees in general, and the bodies of tortoises and cranes are different from those of animals in general. In the case of Old P’eng, however, we are still dealing with mere men, not with creatures of a different species. It was through attaining the divine process that they enjoyed unique longevity, not through what they were by nature. Trees in general cannot choose to model themselves on the pine and the thuya, and animals in general cannot imitate the tortoise and the crane; therefore they are short-lived. Man, however, possesses intelligence; if he can practice the same divine process as did Old P’eng; he can achieve the same results. … If you think that they were all specially endowed with extraordinary breaths, I would remind you that all their stories speak of learning from teachers and taking medicines. … Why is it that geniehood alone is not believed possible?” (Rejoinder to Popular Conceptions)

(Ware 1966, pp. 53/54)

或人難曰：“人中之有老彭，猶木中之有松柏，稟之自然，何可學得乎？”抱樸子曰：“夫陶冶造化，莫靈於人。故達其淺者，則能役用萬物，得其深者，則能長生久視。知上藥之延年，故服其藥以求仙。知龜鶴之遐壽，故效其道引以增年。且夫松柏枝葉，與眾木則別。龜鶴體貌，與眾蟲則殊。至於彭老猶是人耳，非異類而壽獨長者，由於得道，非自然也。眾木不能法松柏，諸蟲不能學龜鶴，是以短折耳。人有明哲，能修彭老之道，則可與之同功矣。……若謂彼皆特稟異氣，然其相傳皆有師奉服食，非生知也。……何為獨不肯信仙之可得乎！”（《對俗》）

Some believe that the longevity of people like Peng Zu 彭祖 and Lao Dan 老聃 was due to nature rather than the result of studying health preservation and the path to immortality. However, Ge Hong explicitly opposes this view, arguing that the longevity of Peng Zu and Lao Dan was not natural. Rather, he believes that anyone who fully exerts their intelligence and wisdom to study and practice the Dao of Peng Zu and Lao Dan can achieve the same effects as them.10 The text Gold and Cinnabar (Jindan 金丹) reiterates this point: “Primal Lord is chief of the gods and genii, … yet he claims to result from a study of the divine process and the taking of cinnabar. If even he did not achieve his status automatically, how much more must ordinary mortals make these efforts!” (Ware 1966, pp. 79/80) Immortals are not natural but rather achieved through ingesting elixirs. The essence of cultivating immortality is that humans transform into immortals through certain means involving “human nature” and “destiny”, which must be mutable rather than inevitable. The Yellow and the White (Huangbai 黃白) states, “The span of life is up to me, not heaven. The reverted cinnabar becomes gold, and millions of years are mine.” (Ware 1966, p. 269) Therefore, opposing the idea that “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” is an inevitable choice in Ge Hong’s theoretical framework of Daoism.

However, this only constitutes one aspect of Ge Hong’s concept of “human nature” and “destiny”. According to this aspect, it seems that everyone has the potential to cultivate and become an immortal. Yet Ge Hong does not share this view entirely. Whether one is endowed with the “qi of immortals” （神仙之氣） and the “nature of believing in the Dao” （通道之性） specifically determines whether one can become an immortal, forming another aspect of Ge Hong’s concepts of “human nature” and “destiny”:

The genii classics hold that all who attain geniehood were so predestined; they merely happened to be granted the potential for divinity and geniehood; it was spontaneously conferred upon them. Therefore, already in the womb they possessed a nature that believed in God. When they had acquired some knowledge, their hearts and minds were drawn toward such matters as these, so all they needed was to encounter an enlightened teacher and acquire his method. Otherwise, they would not have believed and they would not have sought, and if they had sought they would not have found.

…

If you are not fated to become either a god or genie, you will certainly not have your heart and mind drawn toward geniehood. No man has yet sought for such things without having a heart and mind fond of them; none has yet found them without seeking. From antiquity down to the present there have been highly talented and intelligent persons who did not believe in the existence of geniehood; there have also been many very ordinary persons who attained geniehood by study. The former knew many things but in some way were blind to geniehood; the latter were ignorant of much, but they had a special understanding of the logic governing geniehood. Wouldn’t you say that this was caused by heaven’s command? (The Discussion Period)

(Ware 1966, pp. 203/204)

按仙經以為諸得仙者，皆其受命偶值神仙之氣，自然所稟。故胞胎之中，已含通道之性，及其有識，則心好其事，必遭明師而得其法，不然，則不信不求，求亦不得也。……苟不受神仙之命，則必無好仙之心，未有心不好之而求其事者也，未有不求而得之者也。自古至今，有高才明達，而不信有仙者，有平平許人學而得仙者，甲雖多所鑒識而或蔽於仙，乙則多所不通而偏達其理，此豈非天命之所使然乎？（《辨問》）

The natural endowment determines whether one possesses the “nature of believing in the Dao” and the “qi of immortals”, further determining whether one will believe in the path of immortals and devote oneself to its cultivation, ultimately deciding whether one can become an immortal. In this passage, Ge Hong exhibits a clear deterministic view of fate.

So, how should we understand the coexistence and potential contradiction between these two concepts in Ge Hong’s ideological world? In the author’s opinion, the former establishes the possibility of the transformation of life from a holistic human perspective that serves as the foundation for the path of immortality, while the latter focuses on individuals, where each person’s unique “human nature” and “destiny” determines whether they will embark on the path of cultivating immortality and whether they will ultimately become an immortal.

3. “Law of Human Nature and Destiny”

Based on the affinity between “human nature and destiny” and law (li 理) in Chinese philosophy, “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” can easily be transformed into the “law of human nature and destiny”. Consequently, it becomes the foundation for the rationality of issues such as health preservation and the cultivation of immortality. A prevalent theoretical atmosphere during the Wei and Jin Dynasties involved a dualistic distinction of law. For instance, in the debate between Ji Kang and Ruan Kan 阮侃 regarding environments and their impact on good or bad fortune, law and its duality served as the de facto shared theoretical foundation for both sides. Ruan Kan said,

However, the way to avoid danger and seek happiness is nothing more than adhering to law. The law of avoiding thieves is nothing better than fleeing quickly, and that is the best approach. The way to preserve health is nothing better than cultivating harmony first, and that is the ultimate. The need to flee from thieves is obvious, and hence it is not difficult for ordinary people to understand. But the law of avoiding misfortune is obscure, and therefore not easily discerned by the wise. In terms of acting based on reason, one cannot demand immediate results, and this is the first point. (On the Non-existence of Good or Bad Luck in Residences and the Preservation of Life)

(Dai 2014, translated by the author)

然則避禍趣福，無過緣理。避賊之理，莫如速逃，則斯善矣。養生之道，莫如先和，則為盡矣。夫避賊宜速，章章然，故中人不難覩；避禍之理，冥冥然，故明者不易見。其於理動，不可要求，一也。（《宅無吉凶攝生論》）

The fundamental law of avoiding misfortune and seeking happiness is nothing more than acting according to law. When avoiding thieves, the most important thing is to flee quickly, and this law is so obvious that even ordinary people can grasp it easily. The most important law of health preservation and avoiding misfortune is the harmony of body and mind, and the underlying truth is subtle, making it difficult even for the wise to comprehend. However, in terms of these two kinds of law, their commonality lies in the fact that law cannot be created or interfered with by subjective will. This means that the subject can only choose their actions based on law and bear the corresponding consequences but cannot interfere with the objective and inevitable existence of law itself. Ji Kang’s response, in fact, accepted Ruan Kan’s above-mentioned distinction of law:

The Treatise says, “When thieves are approaching, the priority is to flee quickly; when food is not digesting, the first step is to take yellow pills”. You merely know that these actions are superior to merely waiting idly or begging for help, but you fail to understand the law of eliminating danger before it manifests, achieving results subtly without any missteps. Just as extinguishing a fire with water, although it requires more effort than carrying firewood, people often overlook the importance of preventing the fire in the first place by fixing crooked chimneys. How much more so for the subtle matters of the world, which cannot be fully expressed in words or quantified by numbers, and which is why the ancients acknowledged their existence without delving into detailed discussions. By attaining a profound understanding that transcends ordinary comprehension, one can foresee future events, thus one is able to perceive the myriad changes before they happen and reap the rewards after everything aligns harmoniously. The common people call this “nature”, yet they do not understand the underlying law. How could such matters be comprehended by ordinary reasoning? Even for things that are clearly observable and can be counted, many people still remain confused. Considering the vastness of the universe and the diversity of all things, what we know through wisdom is far less than what we do not know. (Countering the Treatise on the Non-existence of Good or Bad Luck in Residences and the Preservation of Life)

(Dai 2014, translated by the author)

《論》曰：“賊方至，以疾走為務；食不消，以黃丸為先。”子徒知此為賢于安須臾與求乞胡，而不知制賊病於無形，事功幽而無跌也。夫救火以水，雖自多於抱薪，而不知曲突之先物矣。況乎天下微事，言所不能及，數所不能分，是以古人存而不論。神而明之，遂知來物，故能獨觀于萬化之前，收功于大順之後。百姓謂之自然，而不知所以然。若此，豈常理之所逮耶？今形象著明，有數者猶尚滯之；天地廣遠，品物多方，智之所知，未若所不知者眾也。（《難宅無吉凶攝生論》）

Ji Kang does not deny that the practices mentioned by Ruan Kan, such as “when thieves are approaching, the priority is to flee quickly” and “when food is not digesting, the first step is to take yellow pills”, are reasonable means of preserving health. However, the laws upon which these means are based are evident and straightforward (what is commonly referred to as ordinary law), and they do not fully encompass the entire “law of human nature and destiny”. Compared to evading danger and treating illnesses, a more profound approach to preserving health involves acting before thieves arrive or diseases emerge, requiring an understanding of subtle and ineffable law that cannot be easily articulated or categorized. Ji Kang’s distinction between ordinary law and supra-ordinary law is essentially equivalent to Ruan Kan’s differentiation of “clearly apparent law” (zhangzhangran zhi li 章章然之理) and “obscure and profound law” (mingmingran zhi li 冥冥然之理). Based on the elusive nature of the ultimate law (zhili 至理) and the limitations of human cognitive abilities, Ji Kang creates a space for the possibility of the existence of a certain “law of good and evil, yin and yang” (jixiong yinyang zhi li 吉凶陰陽之理) that transcends ordinary senses and perceptions.

Based on the common sense shaped by sensory perceptions and classical systems, the secular society often questions the authenticity and rationality of beliefs in immortals and deities. Ge Hong attempts to demonstrate the existence of immortals and the possibility of becoming an immortal without negating common sense. On the one hand, Ge Hong criticizes those who deny the “path of immortality” (busi zhi dao 不死之道), arguing that they are actually confined within the limitations of their own finite minds and sensory perceptions:

Even with the best of eyes it is impossible to see every material object, and with the best of hearing not every sound can be heard. Even with feet like those of Ta-chang and Shu Hai (two of Yu the Great’s helpers) the land we tread would never be as vast as the untrodden. Though we possessed all the specialities of Yu’s ministers Yi and Ch’i Hsieh, what we know would never equal the bulk of our ignorance. What is there that does not exist somewhere in the multiplicity of creation (Chuang 11.55)? Why, then, should the genii, whose life histories fill books, not exist? Why should there be no divine process leading to immortality? (Genii)

(Ware 1966, p. 33)

雖有至明，而有形者不可畢見焉。雖稟極聰，而有聲者不可盡聞焉。雖有大章豎亥之足，而所常履者，未若所不履之多。雖有禹益齊諧之智，而所嘗識者未若所不識之眾也。萬物云云，何所不有，況列仙之人，盈乎竹素矣。不死之道，曷為無之？（《論仙》）

The limitations of human cognitive abilities dictate that we can never fully comprehend everything. Just as no matter how large one’s feet are, the places they have trodden upon are always fewer than those they have not, even for sages, what they do not know far outweighs what they do know. Furthermore, some people become mentally obstructed due to their preconceived notions: “When ignorance befuddles the gods in a man’s heart and mind, he will not believe that a Duke of Chou and a Confucius ever existed in antiquity; still less will he believe us when we tell him about gods and genii.” (Genii) (Ware 1966, p. 36). The limitations of individual cognitive abilities mean that we cannot conclusively determine the non-existence of immortals based solely on personal experience.

On the other hand, classical texts also have their limitations. Ge Hong believes that it is narrow-minded to regard Confucian classics as the sole criterion of truth: “The narrow view and myopic common sense are like fetters and burrows; they dismiss the profound and marvelous as unfathomable and conclude that the divine transformations are empty boasts. How petty to declare anything false that was not expounded by the Duke of Chou and Confucius and is not contained in ancient books!” (The Yellow and The White) (Ware 1966, pp. 263/264). Those who negate beliefs in immortals based on this approach fail to realize that Confucian classics are not all-encompassing and that even the sages who authored these classics were not omniscient. In the chapter “Resolving Hesitations” (Shizhi 釋滯), Ge Hong attempts to address the myriad questions raised by ordinary people, including this very issue:

Interlocutor: If the divine process leading to geniehood can really be had by seeking, why is there no mention of it in the Five Classics? Why have the Duke of Chou and Confucius said nothing about it? Why didn’t the sages become genii? Why do not those with the highest wisdom enjoy Fullness of Existence? If neither the Duke of Chou nor Confucius knew anything about it, they cannot be considered sages. If they knew about it but did not study it, then there can be no divine process leading to geniehood.

(Ware 1966, p. 146)

或曰：“果其仙道可求得者，五經何以不載，周孔何以不言，聖人何以不度世，上智何以不長存？若周孔不知，則不可為聖。若知而不學，則是無仙道也。”

Ko [Ge Hong]: … There is no limit to what is not contained in the Five Classics, and there are a great many things about which the Duke of Chou and Confucius say nothing. … Since this is so, given that we are men with heaven above us, that we move on to old age with earth beneath our feet, that when we ask about these things of the Five Classics there is no reply, and that when we put our questions to the writings of the Duke of Chou and Confucius we get no satisfaction, should they not be considered worthless for our present day? If we cannot understand such supremely large things as heaven and earth which we see on lifting our eyes, what are we going to do about “the mystery within the mystery” or “the pinnacle of marvels within the marvelous”?

(Ware 1966, pp. 146/148)

抱樸子答曰：“……夫五經所不載者無限矣，周孔所不言者不少矣。……然則人生而戴天，詣老履地，而求之於五經之上則無之，索之于周孔之書則不得，今寧可盡以為虛妄乎？天地至大，舉目所見，猶不能了，況於玄之又玄，妙之極妙者乎？”

The traditional Confucian belief holds that the sages Confucius and the Duke of Zhou possessed infinite knowledge and that the Confucian classics encompass everything. If one accepts this viewpoint, it is indeed possible to dismiss anything not found in the Five Classics as false and delusional. In response to this logic, Ge Hong pointed out that there are countless things that are not recorded in the Five Classics and that there are many things that Confucius and the Duke of Zhou did not speak of. Taking the study of the Zhouyi 周易 as an example, it was jointly created by nine sages and theoretically should contain everything in the universe. However, if you ask scholars skilled in the Zhouyi various questions about astronomy and geography (such as “the measurements of the heavens”), they will certainly have answers they cannot provide. The same is true for other classic studies like the Chunqiu春秋 (Spring and Autumn Annals). In short, Ge Hong attempted to argue that the study of the classics does not encompass all knowledge in the universe. Based on direct human experience, the existence of heaven and earth is the most unquestionable, yet there is still much knowledge about them that is not found in the Confucian classics. Does this not precisely indicate that there are omissions and deficiencies in the writings of Confucius and the Duke of Zhou? Since this is the case, it is entirely possible that the extremely profound and mysterious path of immortality is not found within them as well.

Based on common sense, there exist general laws, and based on these general laws, there arises the inevitability of birth, aging, sickness, and death, as well as the fallacy of eternal life. Those who deny belief in immortals argue that everything that has a beginning must have an end and that everything that exists must eventually perish; thus, it is inevitable that humans will die, which is the natural order of human affairs and the ultimate truth. It is evident that the inevitability of death is determined by general laws. Pursuing immortality through cultivation is a typical violation of these general laws and is destined to fail. Consequently, the inquirers resort to these so-called general laws to deny the existence of immortals and the rationality of cultivation for immortality. In response to the challenge based on general laws, Ge Hong’s overall approach is to distinguish between the universality, differences, and particularity of laws. Firstly, Ge Hong acknowledges the existence of general laws with a certain degree of universality. According to general laws, existence and non-existence and beginnings and ends are indeed the general rule. Therefore, the concepts of eternal life and becoming an immortal through cultivation are indeed impossible. However, within the universal law lies differences, the differences and similarities are diverse, some true, some false, leading to myriad changes and inexplicable wonders. Things may seem similar yet fundamentally different, and the ends may diverge from the same origins, making generalizations impossible. The myriad changes in the world cannot be simply categorized, and this is the law that various things cannot be judged by a single standard. For instance, while it is true that all living things must eventually die, there exist creatures like turtles and cranes that live for exceptionally long periods. Furthermore, if there are differences, then how limitless can these differences be? By acknowledging “differences”, we recognize that when these differences reach a certain degree, “particularity” emerges. In the case of humans:

One might well expect this creature who possesses such a noble nature to be of one uniform type, but given their moral perfection and unenlightenment, perverseness and righteousness, beauty and ugliness, tallness and shortness, purity and impurity, chastity and prurience, poise and tenseness, sluggishness and alertness, men differ in their preferences and in their sensual desires, just as heaven and earth or ice and glowing coals differ from one another. Why marvel that the genii are different and do not die as ordinary folk do? (Genii)

(Ware 1966, p. 37)

貴性之物，宜必鈞一。其賢愚邪正，好醜修短，清濁貞淫，緩急遲速，趨舍所尚，耳目所欲，其為不同，已有天壤之覺，冰炭之乖矣。何獨怪仙者之異，不與凡人皆死乎？（《論仙》）

Despite sharing a universal human nature, individuals vary so greatly in all aspects that there exist vast differences among them. Therefore, is it not entirely possible for a few exceptional individuals among humans to achieve eternal life and even become immortals?

In brief, to counter the notion that denies the existence of immortals based on general laws, Ge Hong grounds his argument in the differences and even particularity within universality. Generally speaking, eternal life is impossible, but within the vastly diverse human population, the emergence of a few exceptional cases who can achieve eternal life is entirely reasonable. By pointing out the limitations of common sense and the particularity of law, Ge Hong opens up space for the belief in immortals.

Furthermore, the concept of li 理 (law) determines which methods and techniques are effective for achieving immortality and which are meaningless and absurd. Ge Hong places the highest importance on the alchemical elixir; this implies that other ideological elements, including health preservation and medicine, were merely auxiliary and subordinate pursuits (minor arts):

Sometimes one of them would know how to circulate the breaths, dispense with starches, or take medical herbs. … Wang T’u knew nothing whatever about the grand medicines but merely wished to attain geniehood at home by circulating the breaths. Further, by composing this Tao chi and claiming that the divine process in its entirety was present there he was utterly deceiving others.” (Gold and Cinnabar) (Ware 1966, pp. 68/69)

時有知行氣及斷谷、服諸草木藥法……圖了不知大藥，正欲以行氣入室求仙，作此道機，謂道畢於此，此複是誤人之甚者也。（《金丹》）

The lay Daoist priests had varying degrees of understanding of the true essence of the Way of the Immortals, but their obsession with practices like “breath regulation practice” (xingqi 行氣), “inedia” or the “avoidance of grains” (bigu 辟穀), and “herbal medicines” (caoben yaowu 草本藥物) to achieve immortality was misguided.11 As Campany puts it, “Ge Hong inherited a great many methods supposedly conducive to transcendence, methods that had been crafted by different predecessors over several centuries and in different regions and subcultures. From the point of view of the locative/utopian distinction, the methods discussed and evaluated by Ge Hong show variety as well as complexity” (Campany 2005, p. 209). With the law that he recognized as the core and foundation, Ge Hong integrated existing magical techniques and recipes and systematized them. Because of this, we can view him not only as a collector and unifier but also as a systematizer (Campany 2002, p. 8).

4. “Transforming Life and Destiny”

In a sense, the core logic of Daoism can be expressed as “transforming life and destiny”, which refers to the process of transforming humans into immortals through certain means. The transformation between different species was a common phenomenon in the experience of ancient people, exemplified by the changes in various creatures during different months recorded in the “Monthly Orders” (Yueling 月令) chapter of Liji. According to the understanding of ancient people, the transformation of species was essentially a continuation of life in a different form.12 It is not difficult to imagine the immense excitement this brought to the adepts of Daoism. Based on this idea of the transformation and mutation of “human nature” and “destiny”, it became entirely plausible that humans can become immortals.

As mentioned earlier, Ji Kang was passionate about health preservation but did not particularly care about the path to becoming an immortal. Although he was not eager to pursue immortality, Ji Kang did not reject the literary depiction or theoretical discussion of immortals. Regarding the latter aspect, Ji Kang believed that the function of health-preserving herbs was to “restore and transform one’s life” (huanzhiyixing 還質易性), which was also how immortals came to be. He cited examples of transformations in nature as analogies: “For instance, the mingling lays eggs, and the guoying 果贏 carries them, a change in nature. When oranges are transported across rivers, they turn into mandarins, a change in form due to different soil. By ingesting the qi, one can restore and transform one’s nature; why is it impossible?” (Reply to the Argument Against Health Preservation) (Dai 2014, translated by the author).

Perhaps based on a common knowledge base and sensory experiences, or perhaps influenced by Ji Kang’s theories, the fundamental law of Ge Hong’s Daoism was also “restoring and transforming one’s life”. In his Baopuzi Neipian, Ge Hong also resorted to examples of transformations in nature to argue, through analogy, that the transformation of humans into immortals was entirely possible:

If you claim that all breathing things follow one fixed norm, your thesis cannot be sustained, for the pheasant turns into a shen bivalve, the sparrow becomes a clam, earth bugs assume wings, river frogs come to fly, oysters are changed into frogs, hsing-ling plants become maggots, field mice become quail, rotting grass turns into lightning bugs, alligators become tigers, and snakes become dragons. If you claim that man, unlike other creatures, has an undeviating nature—that the destinies bestowed by August Heaven are not subject to vicissitudes—how can you account for instances where Niu Ai became a tiger, the old woman of Ch’u a tortoise, Hunchback a willow, the girl of Ch’in a stone, the dead came back to life, males and females interchanged sex, Old P’eng enjoyed great longevity, but a baby son died prematurely? If such divergences exist, what limits can we set to them?

If a genie nurtures his body with medicaments and prolongs his apportionment of life with special arts, illness will not arise from within him, nor will disease strike him from without. Though he attains everlasting vision and does not die, the body which he has long had undergoes no change. There is nothing difficult about this provided one possesses the divine process. (Genii)

(Ware 1966, pp. 37/38)

若謂受氣皆有一定，則雉之為蜃，雀之為蛤，壤蟲假翼，川蛙翻飛，水蠣為蛉，荇苓為蛆，田鼠為鴽，腐草為螢，鼉之為虎，蛇之為龍，皆不然乎？若謂人稟正性，不同凡物，皇天賦命，無有彼此，則牛哀成虎，楚嫗為黿，枝離為柳，秦女為石，死而更生，男女易形，老彭之壽，殤子之夭，其何故哉？苟有不同，則其異有何限乎？

若夫仙人，以藥物養身，以術數延命，使內疾不生，外患不入，雖久視不死，而舊身不改，苟有其道，無以為難也。（《論仙》）

Previous philosophy held the belief that creatures receive qi and take on a fixed form that they maintain until the end of their lives. Ge Hong concurred with this notion but explicitly opposed the idea that this was an absolute rule. Instead, he cited numerous empirical facts as examples to illustrate that even humans, who are endowed with the supreme form of life (zhengxing 正性), can undergo transformations akin to those of other creatures, such as Niu Ai transforming into a tiger or the old woman in Chu into a turtle. If humans can undergo such transformations, then why is it impossible for them to be transformed into immortals through certain means?

Among the various immortality techniques Ge Hong pursued, the golden elixir stood as the most important: “The volumes I have studied as I examined writings on the nurturing of life and collected recipes for acquiring everlasting vision must number in the thousands; yet there was not one amongst them that did not insist that reverted cinnabar and Potable Gold were the things of highest importance. These two, it seems, mark the peak of the divine process leading to geniehood. If taking them does not make one a genie, then genii have never existed.” (Gold and Cinnabar) (Ware 1966, p. 68) (餘考覽養性之書，鳩集久視之方，曾所披涉篇卷，以千計矣，莫不皆以還丹金液為大要者焉。然則此二事，蓋仙道之極也。服此而不仙，則古來無仙矣。（《金丹》））. While other cultivation methods than the golden elixir may prolong life and enhance health, they ultimately cannot exempt one from death or confer immortality. Ge Hong cites from the Huangdi jiuding shendan jing 黃帝九鼎神丹經, stating that “by merely doing the breathing exercises and calisthenics and taking herbal medicines one may extend one’s years but cannot prevent ultimate death. Taking the divine elixir, however, will produce an interminable longevity and make one coeval with sky and earth; it lets one travel up and down in Paradise, riding clouds or driving dragons. “(Gold and Cinnabar) (Ware 1966, p. 75) （雖呼吸道引，及服草木之藥，可得延年，不免於死也；服神丹令人壽無窮已，與天地相畢，乘雲駕龍，上下太清。（《金丹》））. Passages from the Scripture of Liquid Gold describe the healing powers of drugs and highlight ways medieval writers imagined the transmission of medical knowledge, as well as the specific places that produce potent substances (Stanley-Baker et al. 2023). Daoism has long incorporated legendary ancient sages like Huangdi 黃帝 into its pantheon of immortals, implying that his ascension to immortality was attributed to the divine elixir.

According to Ge Hong, both ascending to immortality and healing illnesses, as well as health preservation, rely on medicinal substances. The Neipian includes a section on The Genie’s Pharmacopoeia (xianyao 仙藥), which classifies “medicines” into three grades:

Medicines of the highest type put the human body at ease and protract life so that people ascend and become gods in heaven, soar up and down in the air, and have all the spirits at their service. Their bodies grow feathers and wings, and the Traveling Canteen comes whenever they wish. … Medium-grade medicines nurture life. Low-grade medicines banish illness and prevent poisonous insects from attacking and savage beasts from harming us. They immobilize bad vapors, and put evil influence to flight.

(Ware 1966, p. 177)

上藥令人身安命延，升為天神，遨遊上下，使役萬靈，體生毛羽，行廚立至。……中藥養性，下藥除病，能令毒蟲不加，猛獸不犯，惡氣不行，眾妖並辟。

Medicines are thus divided into three categories: the superior grade, which grants immortality and longevity; the middle grade, which promotes health and wellness; and the inferior grade, which treats illnesses. Upon further analysis, the law behind the efficacy of medicines in the minds of ancient people was based on a certain kind of analogical thinking, with both medical functions and the pursuit of immortality being consistent in this regard. Based on the law of the five elements’ mutual restraint (wuxing xiangke 五行相克), the herbal medicines for immortals connect the properties of medicine with a person’s “original allotment” (benming 本命), calculated based on the five elements, thereby deducing the law of the suitability of medicine: “When your fate is classified under the agent earth you should not take green [=blue] (wood) medicine; under metal, no red (fire) medicine; under wood, no white (metal) medicine; under water, no yellow (earth) medicine; under fire, no black (water) medicine; for in the case of the elements, wood subdues earth, earth subdues water, water subdues fire, fire subdues metal, and metal subdues wood.” (Ware 1966, pp. 197/198) （若本命屬土，不宜服青色藥；屬金，不宜服赤色藥；屬木，不宜服白色藥；屬水，不宜服黃色藥；屬火，不宜服黑色藥。以五行之義，木克土，土克水，水克火，火克金，金克木故也。）. This is clearly a product of analogical reasoning. In Ge Hong’s ideological world, the law behind the golden elixir transforming humans into immortals lies in a similar logic:

Gold and cinnabar preparations are such that the longer they are heated the more marvelous are the changes they undergo. Even after a hundred firings, gold does not melt away, nor does it decay, no matter how long it is buried. By taking these two substances we refine our bodies, so that we neither grow old nor die, I suggest that this seeking of external substances to fortify ourselves may well be compared with a fire that does not die as long as the fuel maintains it, or with feet smeared with verdigris so they will not decay in water because the strength of the copper serves to protect the underlying flesh. On entering the body, however, gold and cinnabar permeate the blood and breath circulatory systems; it is not a case of mere external help, such as verdigris provides. (Gold and Cinnabar)

(Ware 1966, p. 71)

夫金丹之為物，燒之愈久，變化愈妙。黃金入火，百煉不消，埋之，畢天不朽。服此二物，煉人身體，故能令人不老不死。此蓋假求於外物以自堅固，有如脂之養火而不可滅，銅青塗腳，入水不腐，此是借銅之勁以扞其肉也。金丹入身中，沾洽榮衛，非但銅青之外傅矣。（《金丹》）

By ingesting these pills, humans can transfer the immortality properties of the metals within them. Conversely, why cannot herbal medicines lead to the achievement of immortality? “The uninitiated do not mix the divine elixirs, but they have great faith in herbal medicines—although they are subject to decay when buried; to softening when cooked; and to scorching when roasted. Since these substances can not even maintain themselves, how can they give life to others ?” (Gold and Cinnabar) (Ware 1966, p. 76) （世人不合神丹，反信草木之藥。草木之藥，埋之即腐，煮之即爛，燒之即焦，不能自生，何能生人乎？）. Herbs inherently lack the attribute of “immortality” and thus cannot influence the human body in that manner. Ji Kang’s On Health Preservation states, “All the qi one consumes, steaming and permeating the body, will inevitably produce corresponding effects.” （凡所食之氣，蒸性染身，莫不相應。）. It is evident that Ge Hong’s understanding of the law behind the golden elixir, herbal medicines for immortals, and herbal medicines is fundamentally consistent with Ji Kang’s. This stems from a common way of thinking among ancient people. We can comprehend this mode of thinking with the aid of the theories of the British anthropologist James Frazer. Frazer divides magic into two types: imitative magic and sympathetic magic. The latter is based on the so-called “Law of Contact”, which states that once things have been in contact with each other, they can continue to interact even after the contact has been severed. Ge Hong’s thinking about humans acquiring the properties of medicines through ingestion is similar to this law (Refer to J.G. Frazer 1925).

In summary, the laws of materia medica and the golden elixir embody a typical analogy and “associational thinking”, which is consistent with the thinking mode of traditional Chinese medicine based on the universal correlation and influence of things established by the dynamic qi–yinyang–wuxing 氣-陰陽-五行 complex.

The fundamental differences between health preservation and cultivation for immortality can be illuminated through the theory of “human nature” and “destiny”. The former aims at “fully realizing human nature and destiny”, striving for the full realization and enjoyment of one’s innate life potential, whereas the latter endeavors to transform and alter “human nature” and “destiny”, converting humans into immortals through specific methods and techniques. Specifically, the health-preservation advocate Ji Kang clearly articulated the goal of health preservation as “fully realizing human nature and destiny”, which inherently implies a dual understanding of “human nature” and “destiny”: the endowment and its realization. Without this duality, there would be no question of fully realizing it or not. On the one hand, health preservation cannot alter the innate endowment of life (which, according to Ji Kang, is determined by hundreds to over a thousand years); thus, eternal life is unattainable. On the other hand, the discrepancy between the endowment and its realization presents the realm where health-preservation practices can take effect. From this perspective, health preservation can be seen as leveraging certain means to fully express the innate life span in one’s postnatal existence. In contrast, the efforts of the spiritual cultivation adept Ge Hong are directed at transforming “human nature” and “destiny”, resorting to particular methods to transform humans into immortals.

The discussion in this article illustrates that the presentation of Ge Hong’s “Way to Immortality” is largely based on the Chinese philosophical theory of “human nature” and “destiny” （xingming 性命）. Firstly, in the entanglement between “human nature and destiny are inherently natural” and “human nature and destiny are (not) inherently natural”, Ge Hong not only established the possibility of human transformation into immortals but also explained why some people can attain immortality while others cannot in reality. Secondly, he believed that the golden elixir, which enables transformation into immortals, conforms to the “law” （li 理） of “human nature” and “destiny” and is therefore correct and effective. Thirdly, in contrast to the prevailing health-preservation practices of that time, which aimed at fully realizing the innate endowments of “human nature”, Ge Hong’s “Way to Immortality” targeted the transformation of “human nature”, reflecting the essential difference between the cultivation of immortality and health preservation.