Making Maoshan Great Again: Religious Rhetoric and Popular Mobilisation from Late Qing to Republican China (1864–1937)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Historical Context: Ban on Pilgrimage to Maoshan in Late Imperial China
3. Daoist Textual Innovations
3.1. Memory: Textual Retention and Reconstruction in Gazetteers and Liturgies
“Yao Guangxiao,5 the Grand Preceptor for the prince, Duke of Rongguo 榮國公, with posthumous name Gongjing 恭靖, once serving at the Historiography Office, commissioned me to write a preface for the reprinting of the Maoshan gazetteer. […] According to records, there were earlier accounts of Maoshan, but the gazetteer was first compiled by the successor patriarch of the order, Liu Dabin during the Yuan dynasty. The woodblocks were destroyed amidst warfare at the end of the Yuan. The original engraving, inscribed by the recluse historian Zhang Boyu, was exceptionally refined and elegant. In the guimao year of the Yongle reign of our current dynasty [1403], Lord Yao obtained a surviving good edition of the old engraving from Chen Dexun, the Numinous Officer of this mountain [Maoshan]. Deeply moved by the thought that the literary records of this mountain had ample evidence, he gathered like-minded individuals to contribute funds and commissioned craftsmen to re-engrave the woodblocks for dissemination. This was indeed a most earnest endeavor”.
“太子少師,榮國恭靖姚公廣孝嘗在史館,以重刻《茅山志》,屬儼為序。[…] 按茅山舊有記,而志則始於嗣宗師劉大彬,故元時所編集也。元末板燬于兵。其故刻則外史張伯雨所書,極精潔。至天朝永樂癸末[1403],姚公得遺刻善本於本山靈官陳得旬,慨然念茲山之文獻有足徵者,乃合同志之士出貲,命工重鋟梓以傳,甚盛心也。”6
“In the guimao years of Yongle reign in our dynasty [1403], Master Yao the Junior Preceptor, renewed the work. In the year bingxu of Chenghua reign [1466], the woodblocks were destroyed once again. The Daoist Master Ding Yuming, who held the titles of Right Profound Justice of the Daoist Register and abbot of Chaotian Palace, had previously studied in these mountains. Deeply concerned that this book, was becoming increasingly scarce among people and might soon vanish entirely without any transmission, he feared that the flourishing legacy of this mountain would come to an abrupt end. The sacred traces and miraculous sites, divine ruins and blessed realms, imperial decrees, essays of great literary brilliance, the mystical patriarchs and Daoist lineages, celestial immortals assigned to heavenly offices, dedicated scholars and esteemed individuals, magnificent terraces and outstanding temples, cinnabar-inscribed stone steles, golden scripts on jade slips, as well as divine flowers and spiritual plants—how would these be documented? Would this not nearly result in the great loss of our heritage? Would this not a matter of profound concern for us? Thus, he sought out old woodblocks and good editions, collected the rewards from the court and the donations from benefactors, and commisionned skilled craftsmen to re-engrave the texts onto woodblocks, creating an imperishable record. He then requested me to compose a preface for it”.
“我朝永樂癸末[1403],少師姚公亦既新之,成化丙戌[1466],板復燬。道錄右玄義兼朝天宮主持丁法師與明,嘗受業山中,深慮是書在人間者日少日無,遂至於湮泯無傳,則茲山之盛事中歇,而其靈蹤異跡,神墟福境,奎文帝命,瓊編瑞檢,玄宗道派,仙屬天曹,志士高人,穹臺傑觀,丹書石刻,金薤瑤章,與夫神葩靈植,將何所稽,不幾乎大墜厥緒,豈非吾徒之憤事耶。乃求舊刻善本,裒朝廷之賞賚檀越之施予,命良于工者重鍥諸木,以為不朽之圖,問蘄予為之序。”7
“At that time, the mountain gazetteer was again destroyed. Daoist Zhang Quan’en of Yuchen Temple raised funds and re-engraved it, and the work was completed. Since the mountain belongs to Jurong county, and I have held office here for nine years, he requested me to write the preface. Thus, someone informed me and presented it to me. The detailed records of the journeys of the Mao Lords, the majestic scenery of this mountain, and the traces of past visitors are all thoroughly documented in this gazetteer. What more is there to say! I have been ordered to transfer to another internal position, and as I pack my belongings to head north, I have no time to say more”.
“時山志復燬,玉晨觀道人張全恩募工重刻既成,以山屬句容,余令茲九載,謁余為序。遂以告或人者授之。茅君履歷之詳,茲山景物之勝,昔人寓玩之蹟,志盡之矣。復何言哉!余方奉命內遷,束裝北上,亦不暇他言云。”8
“The previous gazetteer was compiled by the former Yuan Patriarch Liu Dabin, biography written by the Hanlin Scholar-in-Attendance Zhao Mengfu, praises written by Grand Academician Yu Ji, and with calligraphy by the Recluse Historian Zhang Boyu of Huayang—an accomplishment known as the ‘Four Wonders.’ At the end of the Yuan dynasty, the woodblocks were destroyed by war. In our dynasty, the woodblocks were re-engraved three times, only to be destroyed three times, leaving no records. Now, Daoist Zhang Quanen of the Transcendents’ Mansion and Yuchen Temple has obtained an old edition and raised funds to re-engrave it. The temple’s Numinous Officers Dai Shaozi, Ren Shaoji and Jin Xuanli, along with Chen Yingfu, promoter of the teachings from the Yuanfu Palace, requested me to arrange and compile the new edition. I also included at the beginning the esteemed imperial rituals of our imperial court, construction records, and at the end the poems written by various officials after their visits. I consider it essential to include these, so I compiled them into the opening chapter, simplified the charts and maps, and completed the gazetteer. Thus, I have no more to add. On the day of Duanyang in the Xinhai year of Jiajing [1551], recorded respectfully by Jiang Yongnian, Sacrificial Officer of Liuqian, a native of this county”.
“舊志編自前元宗師劉大彬,傳於翰林承旨趙孟頫,贊於大學士虞集,書於華華陽外史張伯雨,世稱四絕。元季板罹兵焚,我朝三刻三燬,漫無紀載,今真人府贊教玉晨張全恩得舊本,募工重刻,本山靈官戴紹資任紹績金玄禮,贊教元符宮陳應符請餘詮次,並書國朝懿典於前,修建諸文,及羣公登覽詩作於後,計不可無述,偕著其葉於首,簡門圖改證以成全志,茲弗贅雲。嘉靖辛亥[1551]端陽日,柳汧祭史,邑人江永年謹識。”(MSQZ, [1669] 1898, 10a–11a)
“The Precious Litany of the Three Mao Lords is the source from which the Transcendent Lords attained the Dao, and it is the foremost fundamental teaching in Daoism. It must be recited with devotion, day and night. I have memorized this diligently and have not forgotten the text. During the many years I spent on the mountain, there was not a day when I did not cleanse my hands, burn incense, and quietly recite it. […] In the tenth year of the Gengshen cycle [1860], during the intercalary third month, the rebel bandits ascended the mountain and set fire to the Daoist temple and the courtyard. Not a single tile remained intact. At that time, I paid no attention to any of my worldly possessions, but only took care to bury the scripture and litany of the Transcendent Lords in a secluded place, hoping to protect them from destruction. By the sixth month of the third year of Tongzhi [1864], by the grace of the mighty armies of the government, the entire region of Jiangnan was reclaimed. The Daoists gradually returned to the mountain. I then went back to the original place to search for the scriptures, but they were lost. Although prosperity and decline are determined by fate, no calamity was as severe as the devastation of war. Reflecting on the fact that it is just like with houses burned, there would be no place to rest one’s feet temporarily. The lost scriptures meant the loss of the foundation of self-cultivation. Fortunately, I had studied them thoroughly from a young age, and I transcribed several volumes as a temporary measure to continue the chanting and recitations. However, I fear that over time they might deteriorate, which would not only betray the teachings of my master but also make it difficult to face others”.
“三茅寶懺乃應化真君得道之源,道教中第一要宗也。須朝夕虔誦。余謹記不忘。在山十數年,無日不沐手焚香。息心寧卷。[…]迨庚申十年[1860]。閏三月。逆匪上山放火。殿宇道院。片瓦無存。時余身外之物。概不顧問。獨將真君經懺。埋藏偏僻。希冀免劫保全。至同治三年[1864]六月。蒙各大憲軍威丕著。克復江南全省。道等漸次回山。余即往原處跟尋。迷失所在。然雖盛衰有數。而兵燹之災。莫此為甚。竊思房屋燒燬。暫無拖足之區。經懺遺忘。遂失修心之本。余幸從幼熟讀。抄寫數卷。權應宣誦。但恐將來日久殘缺。不特有負師訓亦且難對。”(SMBC, 1924, 34a–36a)
3.2. Abridgment: The Essentials of the Maoshan Gazetteer, Maoshanzhi Jiyao 茅山志輯要
“I have visited Maoshan several times. I read the Maoshan gazetteer and admired its inscriptions and poetry. I once harbored the intention of revising and republishing it, but lamented that its language is too refined and therefore not easily understood by the common folk. This so-called beauty is also its shortcoming, leaving some regret. In the third month of the Jiazi year (1924), I visited the mountain again and came across the Precious Scroll of the Three Mao Lords. Even women and children could understand them. Initially, I obtained a woodblock-printed copy, and later I acquired a lithographic edition from Shanghai, which was of superior quality compared to the woodblock edition. The lithographic edition included a map of the mountains. It was published and distributed by the Daoist Teng Ruizhi of Yiyun Courtyard. Its preface was written by Ge Peiwen, a recluse from Huayang, who mentioned that he and Teng had studied Daoist teachings together. Alas, the Daoist tradition has long been in decline, and yet, there is truly a person like Teng! How can I not feel fortunate for our Daoist tradition? The revival of Maoshan is only a matter of time! I leave a message for Teng: strive to deepen your Daoist practices. The affinity to achieve the path of immortals depends on you. A recently inscribed secret text with a divine edict was published, and I was gifted a copy. I came to know that the Three Mao Lords had been elevated to the title of “Imperial Lords”. Written in the spring of Jiazi year of the Republic of China [1924] by Long Zehou of Guilin”.
“予遊茅山數矣。讀茅山志愛其金石詩文。曾有重修之意。惜其文皆雅。故不能通俗。所謂美尤不足。有遺憾也。甲子三月如山。見有三茅寶卷。婦孺盡曉。初得木板一冊。又得上海石印一冊。較木板精良。前有山圖。則怡雲院道士滕瑞芝所刊送也。其序為華陽小隱葛佩文。謂與瑞芝相研道學。噫。道門衰落久矣。而竟有滕子其人耶。吾不能不為吾道幸矣。茅山復興有日矣。寄語滕子。勉加玄功。仙緣之有分。其在子矣。近刻秘笈誥命。贈以一本。俾知三茅君已晉帝君尋號云。民國十三年甲子春桂林龍澤厚贈言。”(SMBJ, 1924, 3a)
“Postface. Mount Juqu [Maoshan] reflects the natural topography of mountains and rivers. Its name dates back to the Han dynasty, gaining greater renown during the Qi and Liang dynasties, when it became prominent among Daoist practitioners. It was acclaimed as the “Eighth Grotto-Heaven”, a term rooted in Daoist terminology. I, Daomin, have long admired it but never had the opportunity to visit. In the autumn of the gengshen year [1920], in the ninth month, I was ordered by Master Zhang Nantong [Zhang Qian 張謇 (1853–1926)] to handle some matters at the Golden Ox Cave of Maoshan. Tao Shouzhi of Jiangdu accepted the task and acted as my guide. We crossed the Yangtze River to Jingkou, then traveled overland to reach the Golden Ox Cave. From the southern ridge of the mountain, we ascended to Great Mao Peak, reaching an elevation of almost a thousand ren. From its heights, one overlooks the surrounding mountains, which coil like crouching dragons below. Looking back at the Three Mao Peaks, they rise and fall in winding patterns, connecting to Great Mao Peak in the shape of the character “已” (yi). It became clear to me that the name “Juqu” is indeed well deserved. As known to all, all famed mountains must have a gazetteer. Upon inquiring about the gazetteer of this mountain, I was informed by Pan Haoyuan, the abbot of Yiyun Temple, that only one old gazetteer from the early Qing period survives, awaiting republication. I borrowed this gazetteer and promised to print one hundred copies as a gesture of gratitude. While reading the gazetteer on my return journey, I came to understand the mountain’s history and renowned landmarks. However, as the original text was overly voluminous, I took the liberty of compiling an abridged version. The revised version includes the following sections: First, a map of the mountain, showing the grandeur of its three peaks; Second, the preface by Da Changuang, preserving the content of the original gazetteer; Third, a preface by Xu, which outlines theoretical discussions; Fourth, a genealogical record of the Three Mao Lords, tracing their divine origins; Fifth, descriptions of various springs and caves, providing historical anecdotes; Sixth, poems from famous figures since the Liang and Tang dynasties, exalting the cultural and aesthetic significance of the mountain, intended to inspire visitors. I retained only the essential headings, omitting other unnecessary details for the remaining contents. This work is titled the Essentials of the Maoshan Gazetteer (Maoshan zhi jiyao 茅山志輯要). For those who seek truth and beauty, or wish to explore Juqu mountain, it will suffice to have this volume as a guide. Written on the sixteenth day of the twelfth lunar month, gengshen year [1920], by Jiang Daomin of Wuyuan”.
“跋。句曲狀山川之形勢也。其得名始漢,至齊梁而名益,著顯道家者流,名山為第八洞天。洞天云者,亦道家語。導岷心夙慕之,而無緣一陟其地。庚申[1920]秋九月奉張南通師命,有事于茅山之金牛洞。江都陶君受之爲之導,渡江至京口陸行,抵金牛洞。由山南小嶺攀登大茅峯。高殆千仞,俯覽眾山,如伏龍盤旋于其下。回顧三茅,三茅峯起伏曲折,連貫大峰成已字形。恍然于句曲之爲名,不誣夫。世所稱名山必有志。詢茲山之志,怡雲院住持潘浩元云:清初舊志僅存一部,方待重刊。余乃借之,許印百部為報。歸途讀志,知山之歷史名勝矣。顧篇什夥繁,因重為訂輯。首山圖,具三峯之形勝也。先笪序,重原書也;次徐序,著理論也;次三茅眞君紀系,知靈蹟所自也;次各泉洞記,取備掌故也;次梁唐以來名人詩,擷揚風雅以助遊與也。餘存其目,而文不備錄。名之為《茅山志輯要》,云爾。世有求眞攬勝,為句曲之遊者乎,手此編亦足為導矣。庚申臘月既望婺源江導岷跋。”(MSZJY, 1920, 65a)
“There are two types of pilgrims: those who burn incense and those who perform jiao offerings. The largest number of pilgrims come to burn incense, two-tenths of them come to perform jiao. After the opening of the mountain gate in the first month, pilgrims from the north of the Yangtze River come to burn incense, they don’t linger on the mountain [for too long] and descend after spending one night on the mountain only. This year, the incense burning in the first month was not as popular as the last year, because last year was a drought year. In Jiangnan, there are people who burn incense and perform jiao offerings. The majority of pilgrims who asked for the jiao offerings are mostly from the four provinces: Suzhou, Songjiang, Changzhou, and Zhenjiang, with the most of them from Danyang and Wujin. Among those pilgrims to Maoshan, they have one leader (xiangtou 香頭) for every hundred pilgrims and one deputy leader (xiao xiangtou 小香頭) for every ten people. Every autumn, the Daoist priests go down from the mountain to deliver the talisman to the pilgrims, and at the same time, they negotiate with the leaders of pilgrims’ associations for the rituals to be performed next year. Before each pilgrim goes to the mountain to participate the jiao offerings, they make a lot of efforts at home, and their family gives them one more bucket of rice and one more bucket of wheat each year to reward them for their efforts, and they hand over the reward to the leaders for profit. In this way, for three years, there are six harvests, there are three buckets of rice and three buckets of wheat as the principal and profits, and the leaders organize the pilgrims to come to Maoshan. The boat fare, food, candles, and fees for the jiao are all included, so for each ritual, the mountain only gets two or three yuan.16 If the pilgrims for the jiao offerings are from Shanghai, it was much better, and each ritual could net twenty to thirty yuan. Mr. Wang Yiting and Mr. Du Yuesheng often come to Maoshan for the jiao offering! Mr. Wang also promised to print the gazetteers [Maoshan zhi] for Maoshan”.
“香客分燒清香和打醮的兩種。燒清香的最多,打醮的占十分之二。正月開山門以後,江北的香客就來燒清香了,他們不駐腳的,在山上過了一夜就下去了。今年正月香火,不如晚年,這是因為去年是荒年。江南的人,燒清香的打醮的都有。上山打醮的香客,以蘇松常鎮四府屬的人居多,尤以武進丹陽為最多。他們上山的香客,一百個人有一個香頭,十個人有一個小香頭,每年秋季,道士下山與香客送符,同時和香頭接洽來年道場。每個香客要上山打醮之前,自己在家中,多多出力,家裏人酬勞他的出力每年多給他一斗稻一斗麥,他將報酬交把香頭生利,如此三年六熟,共有三斗稻三斗麥的本利,由香頭組織香會到茅山來。船費吃用香燭醮費,一切在內,所以每場法事,山上只落得二三元。上海來的打醮香客,那就好了,每場可淨得三二十元。王一亭杜月笙諸先生常上山來打醮呢!王先生還答應代本山印志書呢。”(Sheng, 1936c)
3.3. Translation and Performance: Religious Literature of Precious Scrolls (Baojuan 寶卷)
“This precious scroll, with every word written with sincerity, painstakingly providing guidance and enlightenment, is a book that benefits the world. All incense-burning devotees should acquire multiple copies to distribute among their relatives and friends far and wide. Reciting it regularly will greatly multiply the merits of burning incense. Those who invite this precious scroll home must treat it with utmost respect, wrapping it in new cloth and offering it with fragrant incense. This can exorcise evil, protect the home, bring fortune, and ward off calamities. Reprinted in the winter month of the twelfth year of the Republic. Respectfully distributed by Daoist Teng Ruizhi of Yiyun Daoist Courtyard on the Great Mao Peak”.
“此卷字字樸實,苦心點化,乃有益世道之書。凡燒香信士務要多請幾本回去,傳送四方親友,時時宣誦,則燒香功德格外加倍矣。請此卷去者,必須十分敬重,將新布包好,清香供奉,可以驅邪鎮宅發福消災。民國十二年冬月重刊 大茅山頂山怡雲道院道末滕瑞芝謹送”(SMBJ, 1924, Foreword)
3.4. Canonization of Deities Through Spirit-Writing
“On the 14th day of the second month in the year of Jiazi during the Republic period [1912], Lingbao Tianzun decreed through spirit-writing at the Qingliang Wanshou Temple in Piling and pronounced [the title of] Three Mao Imperial Lords. There afterwards, all references to the Transcendent Lords should be read as the Three Mao Imperial Lords”.
“民國始甲子二月十四日奉(降鸞於毘陵清涼萬壽寺)靈寶天尊諭曰,三茅帝君。以下,凡見真君均應讀為三茅帝君。”
“On the fourteenth day of the second month of this year [1924], at the Qingliang Temple in Changzhou, the Supreme Lord of Numinous Treasure descended and transmitted a secret edict through spirit-writing. It contained the title ‘Controllers of Fate, Imperial Lords of Three Mao,’ thus conferring upon him the title of ‘Imperial Lords.’ Readers should accordingly change the word ‘zhen’ to ‘di’ when reciting the titles in the proclaimation. I hereby make the announcement to you all of this”.
“今年[1924]二月十四日。常州清涼寺靈寶天尊降乩傳秘笈誥命。中有三茅司命帝君之稱。則是司命君已加封帝君矣。讀者自應於誦誥稱號之時。改誦真字為帝字。謹此奉告。”(SMBC, 1924, 40a-b)
“The Daoyuan of Shanghai, in reverence to the Supreme Patriarch of the Infinite, conferred titles upon Mao Meng, who was named ‘God of Primordial Creation and Transformation,’ Mao Yan was named ‘God of Original Transformation of the Manifestation of Mysterious,’ Mao Xi was named ‘God of Initial Transformation of the Mysterious Radiance,’ Mao Zuo was named ‘God of Efficacy and Mysterious on Conception and Transformation,’ Mao Ying was named ‘God of Supreme Transcendent of Management of Fates,’ Mao Gu was named ‘God of Upper Transcendent of Recording Fate,’ and Mao Zhong was named ‘God of Ultimate Protection of Life.’ All Daoyuans have established altars to worship them, thus they are also now proclaimed as Divine Lords”.
“上海道院奉無極老祖加封茅濛爲肇化通玄神。茅偃爲元化顯玄神。茅憙爲初化光玄神。茅祚爲孕化靈玄神。茅盈爲司命太真神。茅固爲定錄上真神。茅衷爲保命至真神。各道院均設位奉祀。是則又宜稱爲神君矣。”(SMBC, 1924, 40b)
3.5. Incorporation: Miracle Tales and Divine Prescriptions
“Foreword to the ‘Records of Miraculous Responses at Maoshan’Maoshan is revered in Daoist texts as the Eighth Grotto-Heaven and the First Blessed Land, a sacred realm where the spiritual power is evident and beyond doubt. At Yuanfu Palace, the jade seal of nine immortals from the Han dynasty can ward off evil spirits, and the elixir well of Ge Hong from the Jin dynasty, when consumed, can cure chronic illnesses. The book of materia medica compiled by Tao Hongjing during the Liang dynasty mentions the Taiyi Yellow Essence, which can grant immortality when ingested. Beneath the Great Mao Peak, the spring from the purification pond can heal madness, leprosy, and wind sores, while the tea from the peak can improve eyesight and remove cataracts. Other miraculous substances, such as the divine mushrooms that prolong life and the green poria that cures hunger, are so extensively recorded in ancient texts that they cannot be exhaustively enumerated. I have spent the last three years in seclusion at Huayang, contemplating on these worldly events, which causing one only headaches and heartaches. In a time of great societal distress and moral decline, divine power stands out with overwhelming authority. What I have heard and witnessed confirms the extraordinary efficacy of these miracles. Thus, in my free time after practising inner alchemy, I have compiled several miracle tales into the ‘Records of Miraculous Responses at Maoshan’, organized in clear sections. This is offered to both those who have visited this sacred mountain and those who have not, so that they may solidify their faith more deeply. The records are respectfully compiled by Ge Peiwen”.
“茅山靈驗記敘言茅山道書稱為第八洞天第一福地,靈區聖域,徵信顯然。若元符宮漢代九老仙都玉印可驅邪伏魅,晉葛洪煉丹井之泉飲之可癒痼疾,梁陶弘景著本草有太乙黃精,服之可長生不老。大茅峯下,淨身塘之水,浴可癒瘋癩颷輪,峯茶可明目退翳,其餘神芝益壽,蒼朮療飢,種種靈驗,稽之古籍不堪枚舉。余小隱華陽於茲三載,靜觀時世,疾首痛心,人道非非,神權赫赫。耳聞目睹,靈驗非常,丹鉛餘晷,編輯茅山靈驗記數帙,分則眉列,餉諸來遊茲山與未遊者一目了然,以深信仰云。佩文諸誌。”(SMBJ, 1924, 28b)
“Long Zehou, a native of Guilin in Guangxi, was a distinguished disciple of Master Zhu Jiujiang along with his fellow student Kang Nanhai [Kang Youwei]. He abandoned his official position and retreat to the mountains, aspiring to transcend the mundane world. He held a deep admiration for Maoshan and had petitioned the authorities in Jurong county to protect its forests. At the Yuanfu Temple, he founded the “Society for the study of the numinous”. He conducted spirit-writing to spread teachings. He frequented the celestial realms of Huayang in search of the elixir of immortality. His primary goal was to revitalize the Daoist tradition. He wrote a postface for the ‘Scripture and Litany of Three Mao Lords’. His spiritual efforts and concrete deeds, earned him the recognition as a major contributor to the work of the Mao Lords. Without the miraculous efficacy, how could one touch and move the “living dragon” of Guilin?”
“龍澤厚廣西桂林人。同康南海為朱九江先生門下高足。棄官入山。有出世志。對於茅山頗為忻慕。曾請句容縣示。保護該山森林。在元符宮創設靈學會。開乩宣化。往來華陽仙境。欲求長生不死藥。振興道門為宗旨。作三茅君經懺跋。精神作用。事實昭彰。茅君之功臣也。不有靈驗。何其感動桂林之生龍。”27
4. Social Networks for the Publication, Circulation, and Promotion of Daoist Texts
“Next, we visited Yingong and the Juxian Daoist Courtyard, where we were welcomed with wine and food by Daoist Lü Pengbin. We then visited the spirit-writing altar of the lingxuehui, which had been initiated by Long Zanchu [Long Zehou], but had been discontinued after just one session”.
“旋往印宮,至聚仙道院,承呂朋賓道士饗以酒食。旋參觀靈學會乩壇,知為龍贊初先生所發起,開沙一次即中止焉。”(Tao 1924)
5. Pilgrimage as Popular Mobilisation in Republican China
5.1. Navigating Maoshan: Pilgrimage Organization and Social Interactions
5.2. The Sacred Economy of Maoshan Pilgrimage
6. Concluding Remarks
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviation
Beitu | Beijing tushuguan cang Zhongguo lidai shike taben huibian 北京圖書館藏中國歷代石刻拓本匯編 [Collected Rubbings of Chinese Stone Inscriptions from the Beijing Library] |
DZ | Daozang 道藏, numbers following (Schipper and Verellen 2004). |
MSZ | Maoshanzhi 茅山志 [Maoshan Gazetteer] |
MSQZ | Maoshan quanzhi 茅山全志 [Complete Gazetteer of Maoshan] |
MSZJY | Maoshanzhi jiyao 茅山志輯要 [Essentials of the Maoshan Gazetteer] |
SMBJ | Sanmao dijun baojuan 三茅帝君寶卷 [Precious Scroll of the Three Mao Lords] |
SMBC | Sanmao dijun baochan 三茅帝君寶懺 [Precious Litany of the Three Mao Lords] |
1 | The momentum behind this revival found a clear voice in 1924, when Long Zehou invoked the idea of “Maoshan’s impending revival” (茅山復興有日矣; SMBJ, 1924, 3a). |
2 | Han Yu was known for his Confucian opposition towards Buddhism and Daoism. See (Hartman 1986, p. 156). |
3 | The abbreviation “GX” refers to the Guangxu 光緒 period in Qing China (1875–1908). For example, “GX 11 August 1880” in the bibiography indicates the eleventh day of the eighth month in the sixth year of the Guangxu period (1880). Press article titles are arranged alphabetically by the author’s surname when available, and by the name of the newspaper or magazine when published anonymously. |
4 | For a study of Shangfangshan festival (also in Jiangsu province, about 200 km south-east of Maoshan) in the 1930s, see (Katz and Goossaert 2021, p. 57) referring to two Shenbao articles: (Shenbao, 1927; 1935). |
5 | Yao Guangxiao 姚廣孝 (1335–1418) was a political figure at the end of the Yuan and early Ming periods, a Linji sect 臨濟宗 monk, poet, and a key supporter of the Yongle Emperor Zhu Di 朱棣 (1360–1424, r.1402–1424) in his usurpation. He also co-edited the Yongle Dadian 永樂大典. |
6 | Hu Yan 胡儼, Chongke Maoshanzhi xu 重刻茅山志序, unpaginated, in (Wang et al. 2016). |
7 | Chen Jian 陳鑒, Chongke Maoshanzhi xu 重刻茅山志序, unpaginated, in (Wang et al. 2016). |
8 | Xu Jiusi 徐九思, Chongke Maoshanzhi xu 重刻茅山志序, unpaginated, in (Wang et al. 2016). |
9 | My notion of “intermediaries of religious culture”, as a network of actors involved in the production and circulation of religious goods and services, in the context of a shared religious culture and expanding cultural economy in modern China, is informed by Pierre Bourdieu’s work on taste and cultural consumption, especially his definition of “cultural intermediaries” in (Bourdieu 1984). For a recent discussion of Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of cultural intermediaries and its application in various contexts, see (Maguire and Matthews 2014). |
10 | Prefaces can be viewed as a mechanism for transferring symbolic capital from the authors of prefaces to the text. Gisèle Sapiro has examined the production and dissemination of works translated into French from other languages during the contemporary period (2003–2013). In her study, she identifies three distinct editorial strategies employed in the preface of these works: general (and commercial) logic, academic logic, and political logic. See (Sapiro 2023). |
11 | The term Sanmao jing 三茅經 mentioned in (Li, 1935) and Sanmao jingchan 三茅經懺 referenced in (Sheng, 1936c) appears to function more as a categorical label rather than denoting a specific scripture. Sheng Cheng’s article alternately refers to the scripture as Sanmao zhenjing 三茅真經 and Sanmao jingchan 三茅經懺, indicating terminological fluidity. The jing 經 could refer to Jiutian lingbao jinhua chonghui duren baoming maojun zhenjing 九天靈寶金華沖慧度人保命茅君真經, while the chan 懺 may correspond to the Sanmao dijun baochan 三茅帝君寶懺, also titled Zushi jiutian siming sanmao zhenjun miezui baochan 祖師九天司命三茅真君滅罪寶懺, which was in active use at Maoshan. There is another version titled Taoshang sanqing yinghua sanmao zushi linggan fachan 太上三清應化三茅祖師靈感法懺, preserved in the Daozang jiyao 道藏輯要, which appears not to have been reprinted or utilized in Maoshan or elsewhere, and there is no evidence to suggest it played any significant role in Jiangnan. Tao (2024), published just as I was reviewing the final proofs of this article, offers a comprehensive examination of the Precious Litany of the Three Mao Lords (SMBC, 1924). Tao’s study dates this litany to the early Yuan dynasty and demonstrates its inheritance of Shangqing genealogies and an “immortal-selection system” of grotto-heavens (洞天選仙制度). I am very grateful to Vincent Goossaert for bringing this paper to my attention. |
12 | Jiang Daomin 江導岷 (1867–1939), courtesy name Zhiyuan (知源) and alternate name Ziyuan (滋園), was a native of Jiangwan 江灣 in Wuyuan 婺源, Jiangxi Province. In 1893, he enrolled in the Yingshou Academy on Chongming Island 崇明瀛州書院, where Zhang Qian 張謇 (1853–1926) served as the headmaster. |
13 | There exists another edition printed by Shanghai minyi yingji yinshua gongsi 上海民益熒記印刷公司, conserved in Shanghai municipal library (Call Number 477613). |
14 | Such examples were far from isolated incidents; rather, they reflected a broader trend since early twentieth century, for example, the case of 1906 Chongkan Daozang jiyao 重刊道藏輯要 [Reprint Edition of the Essentials of the Daoist Canon]. Compiled by He Longxiang 賀龍驤 (fl. 1891–1906) et al., see (Lai 2021). For the discussion on another illustrative example of an abridged version published in 1923–1924, see (Y. Yuan 2024). |
15 | Sheng Cheng led a rich life and was a well-known figure in China and France. He participated in the May Fourth Movement in China and, shortly after, moved to France to study and work for a decade. He published his seminal work, Ma Mère in 1928, and was a friend of Paul Valéry, André Gide, and Pablo Picasso. He was awarded the Ordre de la Légion d’honneur in 1985. See his biography in French: https://maitron.fr/spip.php?article19774 (accessed 30 December 2024) and see (Culver 2017). |
16 | Here yuan refers to yinyuan 銀元, silver dollars used during the Republican China. |
17 | The additional text on the canonization is appended at the end of a text titled Jiutian lingbao jinhua chonghui duren baoming maojun zhenjing 九天靈寶金華沖慧度人保命茅君真經. |
18 | By “incorporation”, I do not suggest that these miracle tales or divine prescriptions were fabricated ex nihilo from a strictly positivist standpoint. Rather, the appearance of such sections reflects their growing popularity and practical functions during the Republican period. Both miracle tales and divine prescriptions (Zheng 2024) have long been part of the Chinese religious tradition and often drew upon inherited themes, plot structures, and contents from earlier sources. In this sense, “incorporation” here refers to integrating well-established genres into the Maoshan textual corpus in newly configured forms, calibrated to contemporary spiritual and practical needs of the time. |
19 | For an analysis of the relationship between spirit-writing and divine prescriptions (xianfang 仙方 or jifang 乩方) and their broader historical evolution from pre-modern to contemporary times in Chinese religious history, including their integration with medical and philanthropic activities by lay Buddhists in Republican China, see (Zheng 2024). |
20 | “Chengjin tonglai 誠敬同來”, (SMBJ, 1924, 31a-b). |
21 | For an overview on the ritual purity requirements in Chinese religious discourses, particularly concerning dietary restrictions and the prioritization of vegetarian purity, see (Goossaert 2024). |
22 | “Jidan sanmei 雞蛋三枚”, (SMBJ, 1924, 31a). |
23 | “Huishou shoufa 會首受罰”, (SMBJ, 1924, 32a). |
24 | For a comparative perspective, see (Lambek 1980). Lambek analyzes spirit possession among Malagasy speakers of Mayotte as a communicative system involving spirits, hosts, and intermediaries. In that context, spirit possession structures social relationships and introduces new dimensions to familial and conjugal ties, much as the divine intervention in this Maoshan pilgrimage narrative reconfigures economic and moral relationships within the religious community. |
25 | “Xianfang huoming仙方活命”, (SMBJ, 1924, 31a). |
26 | “Xuancao huichun 萱草回春”, (SMBJ, 1924, 33a). |
27 | “Long Guilin 龍桂林”, (SMBJ, 1924, 29b). |
28 | “Guangai wanglai 冠盖往來”, (SMBJ, 1924, 29b-30a). |
29 | “Yexin shenxian 也信神仙”, (SMBJ, 1924, 30a). |
30 | “Kang dachu qi (kang youwei zhi mu) laoshi mubiao 康達初妻(康有為之母)勞氏墓表”, in (Beitu, 1989, 91/187). |
31 | “Kang Youwei qi zhang yunzhu kuang zhi 康有為妻張雲珠壙誌”, in (Beitu, 1989, 93/128). |
32 | Auspicious burial sites have long been in high demand in traditional China, where graves were regarded as unique and permanent forms of property, stringently regulated by law in Qing China, see (Brown 2023, Chapter 1). Despite the preference for placing graves on uncultivated hills or sacred mountains, new digging was frequently forbidden, although existing graves were to be maintained and respected, see (Goossaert 2025a). Thus, the case of Kang Youwei, who established family graves at Maoshan through substantial patronage and contributions, highlights how these funeral practices were intertwined with personal privilege and local customs in Republican China. |
33 | For example, pilgrimages draws on the scriptural/discursive through the engagement with religious texts and their recitation and performances, embodies the self-cultivational by keeping dietary prohibitions and moral behavior among participants, enacts the liturgical through communal rituals and ceremonies performed en route or at sacred sites, addresses the immediate-practical by fulfilling pressing religious or material needs such as blessings or healing, and strengthens the relational by cultivating networks of solidarity and shared devotion among pilgrims and their communities. |
34 | For a recent study on the role of spirit-mediums as the nexus point between networks of clerics in temples and lay Buddhists in the rural region of North China, see (Chao 2022). |
35 | “Santianzhu 三天竺 refers to the ancient monastery of Nantianzhu monastery 古南天竺寺. includes Faxi si 法喜寺, Fajing si 法净寺 and Fajing si 法镜寺. A comparision between Maoshan pilgrimage and Tianzhushan pilgrimage is mentioned in (Xinwenbao, 1926). |
36 | In Bingenheimer’s study on pilgrimage to Putuoshan, he also noticed a similar pattern and concluded that almost “everybody in Ningbo and on Zhoushan…had an interest in maintaining and expanding the pilgrimage economy”. See (Bingenheimer 2016, pp. 42–43). |
37 | Shi is the unit of volume used since ancient China, 1 shi equals 100 L during the Republican period, according to Weights and Measures System (《Zhonghua minguo duliangheng fa 中華民國度量衡法》) implemented by the National Government of the Republic of China in 1930. |
38 | Pilgrims’ fair in the Jiangnan area during the Republican era could well be one of the major markets for Sino-Japanese trade. It could have been facilitated by businessperson who had a vested interest in supporting the prosperity of religious institutions. As noted earlier in (Sheng, 1936a), a source from Maoshan Daoists explicitly mentions the patronage of Wang Yiting 王一亭 (1867–1938), a prominent businessman, philanthropist, and artist who played a significant role in cross-strait activities between China and Japan. Recent scholarship has revealed Wang’s profound and enduring religious convictions, which deeply informed his philanthropic and artistic endeavors. For a detailed discussion of Wang’s religious life, see See (Katz and Goossaert 2021, Chapter 6). |
39 | For critiques of the speech act theory, see (Bourdieu 1991; Butler 1997). |
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Titles of Miracle Tales | Intervention | Healing | Refuge | Dietary | Individuals |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Miracles Upon Miracles 靈而又靈 | X | ||||
The Divine Staff Strikes the Shin 神杖叩脛 | X | ||||
Being a Good Person is Blessings善人是福 | X | ||||
Long Guilin [Long Zehou] 龍桂林 | X | ||||
The Coming and Going of the Nobles 冠盖往來 | X | ||||
Even Skeptics Believe 也信神仙 | X | ||||
Grotto-Heavens and Blessed Lands 洞天福地 | X | ||||
Protected from War 兵災不入 | X | ||||
Thief Enters and Exits 盜入復出 | X | ||||
Three Eggs 雞蛋三枚 | X | ||||
Coming Together in Sincerity and Reverence 誠敬同來 | X | ||||
Alchemical Cinnabars Extends Life 爐丹益壽 | X | ||||
Pilgrimage Leader being Punished 會首受罰 | X | ||||
Divine Prescriptions Save Lives 仙方活命 | X | ||||
The Stone Does Not Crush 石不壓人 | X | ||||
The Daylily Revives 萱草回春 | X |
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Zheng, Q. Making Maoshan Great Again: Religious Rhetoric and Popular Mobilisation from Late Qing to Republican China (1864–1937). Religions 2025, 16, 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010097
Zheng Q. Making Maoshan Great Again: Religious Rhetoric and Popular Mobilisation from Late Qing to Republican China (1864–1937). Religions. 2025; 16(1):97. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010097
Chicago/Turabian StyleZheng, Qijun. 2025. "Making Maoshan Great Again: Religious Rhetoric and Popular Mobilisation from Late Qing to Republican China (1864–1937)" Religions 16, no. 1: 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010097
APA StyleZheng, Q. (2025). Making Maoshan Great Again: Religious Rhetoric and Popular Mobilisation from Late Qing to Republican China (1864–1937). Religions, 16(1), 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010097