Religion and Violence: Help from the Egyptian Desert

Abstract

Support for political violence by fundamentalist religious movements is both wide-spread and problematic, and now especially in Christian fundamentalist circles. To address this, this essay describes important components of the sophisticated ascetic and contemplative theory of spirituality of the fourth-century desert Christian spiritual master Evagrius of Pontus. Then, based on his theory, this essay offers guidance to modern-day Christian and non-Christian clergy who want to avoid alienating their congregations through partisan political stances, but who nevertheless seek to reduce those mental, emotional, and relational pathologies in their congregations which predispose passive and active support for political violence.

1. Introduction

Support for political violence by fundamentalist religious movements is both wide-spread and problematic. Its political aspect can stymie religious leaders when they attempt to respond. They may feel compelled to challenge enthusiasm in their congregations for political movements which violate religious and ethical values. But when they do so, they risk alienating portions of their congregations who may perceive them as mere political partisans. However, an ancient voice from the Egyptian desert offers a way forward. This is the voice of the early Christian desert monk, Evagrius of Pontus1. To this end, this essay proposes that Evagrius can assist modern-day Christian and even non-Christian clergy who want to avoid alienating their congregations through partisan political stances, but who nevertheless seek to reduce those mental, emotional, and relational pathologies in their congregations which predispose passive and active support for political violence. In what follows, we will briefly explore his utility for this problem and his theory of spirituality, and then consider some specific strategies for religious leaders suggested by his theory.

The focus here on fundamentalist religious movements is important. We can see why by considering varying support for political violence by sub-sets of evangelical Christians in the United States. Such support can include not only active support but also the passive support of willful ignorance or silent dismissal of a genuine problem. A clue emerges from observations by constitutional lawyer and journalist David French about evangelical enthusiasm for the MAGA (“Make America Great Again”) movement (French 2023)2. His observations are relevant, because, while only a minority of MAGA partisans actively support political violence or would be willing personally to engage in it, the MAGA movement nevertheless lends significantly higher support for political violence than other contemporary American political groups according to several large-scale studies (Wintemute et al. 2022, pp. 3, 14–18; Tempered Expectations 2021). French observes that only the fundamentalist wing of white evangelicalism champions MAGA politics. An evangelical Christian himself, French characterizes the mindset of fundamentalist evangelicalism as one of certainty, ferocity, and solidarity. All of this suggests that within white evangelicalism, pathologies fostering support for political violence lay only in fundamentalist sub-groups.

We can better understand the dilemma facing evangelical clergy, to which non-evangelical clergy might also identify, by recalling the history of American evangelicalism. The distinction between evangelicalism broadly considered and Christian fundamentalism, with its embrace of militant in-fighting and anti-intellectualism, appeared during the “Great Reversal” period of the early twentieth century, as Marsden demonstrates in his seminal study (Marsden 1980, pp. 85–93, 188–91). Eighteenth-century evangelicalism enjoyed a healthy intellectual curiosity and irenic mindset. Biblia Americana stands as a representative example of early evangelical intellectualism. This massive biblical commentary is deeply informed by eighteenth-century historical and scientific scholarship (Smolinski and Stievermann 2011). And early evangelicals distinguished themselves from other Protestants by their willingness to cooperate across denominational lines for the sake of the gospel (Sweeny 2005, pp. 27–49). But in the early twentieth century, American evangelicalism faced Darwinism’s challenge to its interpretations of Genesis and a massive take-over of churches and religious colleges and seminaries by theological liberalism. Desperate to survive, American evangelicalism retreated into anti-intellectualism. It also adopted a defensive, narrowly sectarian, highly militant theological stance. This militancy lives on in that present ferocity observed by French. Reacting to classic theological liberalism’s reduction of Christianity to the “Social Gospel”, these self-described “fundamentalists” largely abandoned earlier evangelical concerns about social ethics. They defined morality in strictly individualistic categories. However, in the mid-twentieth century, many rejected the excesses of militant and highly sectarian fundamentalism to return to the intellectualism and cooperative mindset of earlier evangelicalism.

Thus, we encounter within contemporary evangelicalism a spectrum extending between fundamentalist and neo-evangelical poles. Many evangelical clergy face the challenge therefore of maintaining unity in congregations that include groups dwelling at various locations along this spectrum. They also struggle to respond to an unbiblical enthusiasm for political violence that is driven by not by the New Testament “ethical triad” of faith, hope, and love, but rather by its total opposite of unbelief, fear, and political and racial hatred (e.g., 1 Cor 13:13; Gal 5:5–6; 1 Thes 1:3; 5:8; 1 Tim 6:11; 2 Tim 2:22). Yet, however daunting their struggle seems, and however daunting may be similar struggles facing non-evangelical clergy, help emerges from the Egyptian desert through the profound theory of spirituality of the early Christian discipleship master, Evagrius of Pontus. And his intellectual and experiential insights into human frailties and longings for virtue and the transcendent suggest that even non-Christian religious leaders concerned about support for political violence may benefit from elements of his theory of spirituality. In view of this, although certainly not entirely because of it, it is not completely surprising that one prominent theologian concluded that Evagrius’ thought was more Buddhist than Christian (Balthasar 1965, p. 193).

2. Why Evagrius?

Why is Evagrius especially able to offer help for the modern problem of political violence? After all, he did not fixate on civil politics. We might consider several reasons.

First, his theory of spirituality forms much of the foundation of Christian spirituality in both the East and the West. His writings reached even China and beyond (Stewart 2016, p. 206). And while he served monks in an early monastic community and mainly shaped monastic thought, he also counseled others living ordinary lives in the world and profoundly shaped Christian spirituality, broadly considered. His deep influence extended beyond monasticism itself.

His thought came to the West mainly through John Cassian, though also by others including Rufinus (Casiday 2007; Stewart 1998, 2005a, 2016; Harmless 2004, pp. 373–413). Cassian was an apt conduit, since he sojourned in the East for two decades and was fluent in the languages of the Greek East and the Latin West. Evagrius deeply influenced him. After Cassian’s return from the East, he wrote his Institutes and Conferences for the sake of transmitting eastern monasticism to the West. Starting in Gaul, it eventually spread throughout the West. Although use of Evagrius’ works in the Pelagian crisis produced a posthumous condemnation and avoidance of his name in the West, his thought and influence survived nevertheless (Stewart 2016, pp. 215–16).

Additionally, he thoroughly shaped eastern Christian spirituality (Arzhanov 2015; Collins 2016; Fokin 2015; Stewart 2016, pp. 216–25). His theology was fully preserved and his spirituality appreciated throughout Syriac Christianity. As for the rest of eastern Christianity, he, along with Macarius-Symeon, most deeply shaped its ideas about prayer, purification, and communion with God.

Second, Evagrius pioneered the foundational role in Christian spirituality of the inner life of thought. The relevance of this will become evident below. We may perceive how seriously he confronted the spirituality of the inner life of thought in his comment about Prov 28:7 (“A wise son observes law, but whoever shepherds prodigality dishonors his father”3), as follows:

It calls the mind a shepherd, and the passionate thoughts tended in it sheep, “through deviating from the law, one dishonors God” (Rom 2:23).4 For prodigality of a soul is impassioned bodily thoughts brought to fulfillment, and prodigality of a mind is the reception of false dogmas and false contemplations.

(Evagrius, Sch. Prov. 344)

Just as a shepherd must maintain constant vigilance over wandering sheep, so must the mind of a disciple maintain constant vigilance over wandering thoughts. Thoughts that wander towards wicked aims must be shepherded back into holy paths, on a moment-by-moment basis.

Third, Evagrius is the pioneering early Christian (patristic) theorist of destructive mental habits and pathologies. This is crucial, since sinful behavior, including violent offenses, spring from prior mental sins according to the New Testament (Matt 15:18; Jas 1:13–15). Evagrius identified and developed extensive diagnostic and therapeutic responses to eight cardinal, deadly thoughts and passions: gluttony, sexual impurity, avarice, sadness, anger, listlessness, vainglory, and pride (Evagrius, Prak. 6–14)5. His teaching about these cardinal vices extensively shaped eastern Christian spirituality. It also greatly impacted the West, where Gregory the Great transformed these cardinal vices into the seven deadly sins (Harmless 2004, p. 322; Stewart 2016, p. 214).

Fourth, given the above-discussed primacy of the inner life and the obvious role of anger in political violence, Evagrius is the pioneering theorist of anger in Christian spirituality. He singled out anger as the most fierce of the eight cardinal vices (Evagrius, Prak. 11). He so characterized anger, because it disrupts clear thinking, sabotaging prayer and self-control. And since prayer and self-control are crucial for treating other vices according to Evagrius, anger can be catastrophic to the soul (Louth 2010). Thus, Evagrian thought is a potent remedy for political violence.

For all of these reasons, Evagrius’ theory of spirituality offers much help for the modern problem of political violence, even if is not the sole answer. Let us now explore it.

3. Evagrius and Spirituality

In the initial saying of his Praktikos, a handbook composed of a set of maxims (lit. “heads,” κεφαλαί, denoting short summaries of teaching) for those initiating their spiritual journey, Evagrius summarized Christianity (Evagrius, Prak. 1; critical text: Guillaumont and Guillaumont 1971; English translations include Bamberger 1972; Sinkewicz 2006). He explained that Christianity is the dogma (δόγμα) of Christ the Savior, and that this dogma is perceived through three activities: practical ethics (πρακτική), contemplation of nature (φυσική), and contemplation of God (θεολογική)6. He presented these activities as three stages of the return to God (Evagrius, Gnos. 49, Sch. Prov. 2, 247)7. We see these same three stages of return in his comment on Prov 22:20, as follows:

He who widens his heart through purity will perceive the words of God, the ethical ones and the physical ones and the theological ones.8 For everything related to diligent study of Scripture is divided threefold into ethics and physics and theology. And the Proverbs go with the first, Ecclesiastes goes with the second, and the Song of Songs goes with the third.

(Evagrius, Sch. Prov. 247)

In the initial ethical stage of πρακτική, the disciple lives a life of asceticism, whether in a monastic setting or in ordinary life in the world, in order to escape passions destructive to the soul. Only after these destructive passions are overcome can a disciple perceive higher insights through contemplation (Evagrius, Prak. 86; Monach. 133, 135–36; Mal. cog. 29; Sch. Prov. 109, 199, 201).

In the second stage, freed from destructive passions, disciples contemplate the created realm in order to perceive God’s providence and gracious judgment, and through these, his love (Evagrius, Prak. 53, 92; Gnos. 40, 48–49; KG II.61–62; Sch. Prov. 3, 79, 88, 153, 155, 190; Dysinger 2001). Disciples also contemplate their thinking in order to avoid acting on demonic thoughts (Origen, Princ. 3.2.4; Evagrius, Mal. cog. 8; Antirrh. prologue.1–2; Sch. Prov. 150, 166, 351).

Evagrius called the final stage of ascent “theology” (θεολογική), but it was essentially epoptics. Epoptics entails intellectual knowledge but also surpasses it through mystical perception. This “theology” is contemplation of the Holy Trinity.

This three-stage ascent composes one side of his theological framework. Its opposite side traces an earlier descent. Influenced especially by Origen of Alexandria, whose thought was mediated to Evagrius especially by his personal mentors, the prominent eastern theologians dubbed “the Great Cappadocians,” Evagrius envisioned a perfect primal unity of all created rational minds with the Holy Trinity. However, these minds turned away from God and fell, finding existence in souls and bodies (Evagrius, Ep. Mel. 26). This was a fall out of virtue and knowledge into vice and ignorance. And these bodies differ. Evagrius believed that Christ graciously provided each fallen mind with a body and a world optimal to facilitate its return to God (Evagrius, KG II.85; IV.58). Those closest to God are angels, those further out are humans, and the furthest are demons (Evagrius, Gnos. 48; KG III.36, 47; Sch. Prov. 33, 379). A fallen mind may ascend back to God through the aforementioned three stages. After a finite series of medicinal eons, all fallen minds will re-ascend back to the Holy Trinity in an ultimate restoration of the primal unity (reunification, ἀποκατάστασις: Origen, Princ. 3.5.4; 3.6.5; Cels. 8.72; Evagrius, Mal. cog. 31; KG I.40, 65; II.84; III.40; Ep. Mel. 26–30; Sch. Prov. 62, 118, 268, 311; multiple curative eons: KG II.84–85; III.38–40, cf. 36; Sch. Prov. 144, 275, 294, 340, 356). Thus, the framework of Evagrius’ ascetical and theological system is this vision of a fall of rational minds out of a primal unity with the Holy Trinity into vice and ignorance (especially a relational ignorance of God) followed by a return to God by way of three stages of ascent (ethics, physics, and theology) to a final reunification.

This reunification of God and creation is not pantheism, since the distinction between God and his creatures remains (Origen, Cels. 6.71; 8.72; Evagrius, Ep. Mel. 23). And Evagrius’ vision of this perfect unity of love emerged partly from his relational character. As an experienced spiritual master, he enjoyed a discerning and generous spirit. Accordingly, recent scholarship challenges an older canard depicting Evagrius as a harsh and aseptic philosophical mystic (Dysinger 2005, p. 196; Stewart 2005a, pp. 80–81; Tobon 2010, pp. 221–22; Corrigan and Glazov 2014, p. 62).

Space limitations disallow full discussion of the complexities of Evagrian thought9. And as a catalyst for spiritual growth, it is far more succulent than may appear in this brief essay. However, we will encounter below further details as we consider suggestions for clergy concerned about the problem of political violence.

4. Evagrian Strategic Suggestions for Clergy

The rich theory of spirituality of Evagrius suggests strategies for clergy concerned about active and passive support for political violence in their congregations. His basic theory inspires the following suggestions for modern Christian and non-Christian clergy, although they deviate from some details of his fourth-century program. In Gadamerian terms, these strategies can build assumptions which enable congregants to interpret political rhetoric in ways that disarm support for political violence rather than ones that arm it (Warnke 1987, pp. 75–82).

Religious leaders are wise to follow Evagrius’ wisdom about the differing spiritual capacities of individuals (Evagrius, Gnos. 35–36; Sch. Prov. 250, 363). Clergy should avoid “one-size-fits-all” solutions to spiritual problems. Rather, they should address both simple believers and also the more advanced with differing insights and pastoral direction according to the varying spiritual capacities of hearers. Yet whenever possible, they should also withhold advanced training from disciples not yet able to receive it. Accordingly, we now consider clerical strategies organized by Evagrian stages, beginning with the initial stage for the least advanced.

5. Foundational Ethical Stage of Spiritual Formation (Πρακτική)

We only truly know when we know not only intellectually, but also experientially. For example, Christians must know Christian doctrine intellectually, but to know deeply, they must also apprehend its experiential side (Matt 18:23–35). Jesus’ moral teachings in the Sermon on the Mount and the Beatitudes must shape them.

For Evagrius and his teachers, ethical formation is prerequisite for genuine spiritual progress (Origen, Princ. 2.11.7; Evagrius, Gnos. 10; KG V.15, 33, Sch. Prov. 247; Daley 2006, pp. 43–44). Therefore, his foundational ethical stage aims at freeing disciples from the eight foundational vices. Clergy should emphasize defeating all of these vices of gluttony, sexual impurity, greed, sadness, anger, listlessness, vainglory, and pride. Some of these vices are typically ignored in modern churches, at least in the West. And the vice of anger has obvious connection to the problem of political violence.

This Evagrian emphasis on defeating destructive passions suggests that clerical direction must transcend those categories upon which many clergy typically focus, such as general attitudes and outward behavior. Remembering the primacy of the inner life in Evagrian spirituality, clergy should frequently address the inner life of thought, its moment by moment pathologies. Clergy should equip congregants with strategies and habits for vanquishing destructive thoughts that frequently arise during waking hours. In the Christian context, this spiritual equipment includes extensive instruction on incessant prayer, as discussed below, and correcting passing evil thoughts by recalling appropriate biblical sayings, as modeled by Jesus answering the devil (Mark 4:1–11) and by Evagrius in his handbook, Antirrhetikos (English trans.: Brakke 2009).

6. Intermediate Stage of Contemplating Life in the World (Φυσική)

According to Evagrius, Christ, in a gracious “second creation,” provided each fallen mind with both a body and a world appropriate to its spiritual state, a place for optimal spiritual progress (Evagrius, KG I.50, 65; II.64, 85; III.26, 36, 38; VI.20, 58; Sch. Prov. 33, 104, 275)10. Gerdon summarizes well this intermediate φυσική stage as “an understanding of the world as God’s creation and theater of salvation, guided by Scripture and expressed in teaching” (Gerdon 2019, p. 365; Cf. Evagrius, Mal. cog. 6). This “theater of salvation” featured actors such as the “noonday demon” and monks this demon attacked in the hot midday. Such attacks produced a spiritual listlessness mimicking the physical listlessness of these hottest desert hours and hatred of labor, of the desert, of others, even of life itself (Evagrius, Prak. 12).

This is contemplation of minds, souls, and bodies operating in the world. It transcends the initial ethical stage, because here a disciple begins to perceive her particular spiritual vulnerabilities. Clergy can advise remedies appropriate to specific vices. They can promote one-on-one discipleship, focusing not merely on basics of religious life and belief. Rather, this discipleship must go deeper, helping disciples overcome the above-mentioned eight deadly vices, perceive their particular spiritual vulnerabilities, and learn helpful remedies.

However, this contemplation and spiritual warfare against vices must also be free of the frantic anxiety of legalism. This is why Evagrius also wanted disciples in this stage to perceive Christ’s providential judgments in the world, thereby comprehending God’s grace and love more deeply (Dysinger 2001). For Evagrius and his community, Christ’s providential judgments are kindred to the discernment used by ancient physicians in diagnosing patients (Dysinger 2004, pp. 75–104, esp. 98–103; 2005, pp. 176–77, 193–95).

This discussion also shows how a disciple in the intermediate stage never leaves the initial stage of pursuing virtue. Likewise, disciples in the final stage of progress never leave the two prior stages (Gregory of Nyssa, Comm. Cant. 9, PG 44:964c; Evagrius, Gnos. 13, 20; Dysinger 2005, pp. 68–69). Clergy should reinforce lessons from initial spiritual stages even for those in advanced stages.

7. Ultimate Stage of Contemplating God (Θεολογική)

The following clerical suggestions particularly address Christian clergy, even more than prior suggestions, because they entail theological contemplation, and because Evagrius’ own theology was classically Christian. Nonetheless, other religious leaders may selectively adapt following suggestions guided by their faith.

Evagrius conceived θεολογική as contemplation of and communion with the Holy Trinity. Therefore, frequently call the attention of congregants to Eph 5:1 (“be imitators of God”; English Standard Version), i.e., imitators of the Trinity, who is inherently unity with diversity. Healthy Christian congregations are diverse regarding race, gender, age, politics, and other cultural categories, but enjoy profound unity built on a shared theological foundation, what biblical scholars call the New Testament κήρυγμα, second-century Christians called the “canon of truth” or the “rule of faith,” and what was expressed more formally in classic early creeds (Dodd 1937; Ferguson 2015; Kelly 2014). To imitate the Holy Trinity is to be a people of unity with diversity.

Inspire the congregation with the Evagrian vision of the direction and end of salvation history: restoration of the original unity of all created minds together with the Holy Trinity. Its readily (though imperfectly) imagined image of ultimate restored unity can instantly reorient believers towards a hopeful culmination unmarred by loneliness, alienation, disorder, brokenness, sin, danger, strife, wickedness, decay, or death. It bears transformative power, for our future changes our present (Moltmann 1993).

Especially for disciples in this ultimate stage, promote the benefits of incessant inner prayer to Jesus the Son of God. This habit implements ongoing medicinal soul care. Offer extensive instruction on biblical passages such as 1 Thes 5:16, “pray continually,” and 2 Cor 10:5b, “we take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ.” While Evagrius predated the incessant “Jesus Prayer” tradition, he prepared its way with his own experience and teaching of incessant prayer (Evagrius, Sch. Prov. 74; Behr-Sigel 1992, pp. 64–69, 75–80, 135–76; Harmless 2004, pp. 350–51). Incessant prayer offers multiple benefits, including reduced selfishness, sanctification of the mind, inner peace, and continual communion with God. Incessant silent, short prayers to Jesus transform John 3:30 (“he [Jesus] must become greater, I must become less”) from vague ideal into experiential reality. They assist existential struggle, dissolving a sense of aimless self-gratification. Indeed, by incessant inner prayer, one quietly and constantly invokes God’s gracious intervention in life settings. It reduces the crushing loneliness of a postmodern world that has increasingly lost traditional roots. This isolation and rootlessness are aggravated by corporate cultures that disrupt multi-generation homes through demands of overtime and cross-country hires and transfers. But incessant inner prayer to Jesus reduces inflammations of this cultural loneliness by activating ongoing communion with the Holy Trinity. Indeed, the ultimate goal of Evagrian ascent is perfect, absolute communion with the Holy Trinity. Evagrius even believed that the most spiritually advanced might, in very rare, fleeting moments of “pure prayer”, enjoy perfect communion with the Trinity, illumined by the sapphire light of the soul and surrounded by divine light (Evagrius, Prak. 64; Skem. 2, 4, 20, 23, 25; Mal. cog. prologue).

8. Conclusions

Clergy can use these suggestions from the ascetic and contemplative program of Evagrius to help congregants build habits enabling continual course corrections for thoughts, words, actions, and hopes. They help form disciples into ethical and prayerful people who continually strengthen their unity with others and with God. Evagrius’ wisdom for this kind of formation can reduce mental, emotional, and relational pathologies in a congregation that foster active and passive support for political violence.