Next Article in Journal
Application of ANN in Construction: Comprehensive Study on Identifying Optimal Modifier and Dosage for Stabilizing Marine Clay of Qingdao Coastal Region of China
Previous Article in Journal
Design and Experimental Study of 50 kW Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Test Platform Based on Organic Rankine Cycle
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JMSE
Volume 12
Issue 3
10.3390/jmse12030464
jmse-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Wind-Powered Desalination on Islands: A Review of Energy–Water Pathways

by
Carlos Matos
1,
Pedro Cabrera
1,*,
José A. Carta
1 and
Noemi Melián-Martel
2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Campus de Tafira s/n, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
2
Department of Process Engineering, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Campus de Tafira s/n, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12(3), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030464
Submission received: 8 February 2024 / Revised: 29 February 2024 / Accepted: 5 March 2024 / Published: 7 March 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Energy)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Water scarcity is a global problem that particularly affects islands located in arid regions or regions with limited water resources. This issue has prompted the development of non-conventional water sources such as fossil fuel-powered desalination systems. Concern about the high energy and environmental costs associated with this type of facility has created the ideal framework for the proliferation of desalination projects powered by renewable energies, especially wind energy due to the multiple advantages it offers. This article provides a bibliometric analysis to identify the advances made in wind-powered desalination on islands. While many studies explore wind-powered desalination, none compile references specific to islands. This paper analyses islands’ desalination needs and showcases wind-powered systems, exploring their types and uses. Firstly, the most relevant international scientific journals are identified to allow the subsequent selection and quantitative and qualitative analysis of articles directly dealing with wind-powered desalination systems. A total of 2344 articles obtained from the Scopus database were analyzed, of which 144 including 181 case studies were selected. Among the results of this study, an increasing year-on-year trend is observed in the number of published studies tackling wind-powered desalination. Finally, this paper presents a series of maps showing the most relevant facilities, projects, and data in this field, and provides an overview of the lessons learned in the decarbonization of desalination.

1. Introduction

Access to fresh water is a growing problem in many areas of the world, due partly to climate change and partly to other factors such as a rising population [1]. In this context, some research studies have focused on analyzing the influence of climate change on the scarcity of fresh water in traditionally desert-like regions, while others have considered the potential impact on other traditionally freshwater-abundant regions [2,3]. With desalination becoming an increasingly popular option to ensure the supply of fresh water, some studies have looked at the contribution to climate change made by the fossil fuel-based powering of the technologies used to desalt the water [4]. Eke et al. [5] indicate that there is an increasing trend in the cumulative capacity of operational desalination plants worldwide, from just 27,252 m3/d in 1969 to 97.2 million m3/d in 2020. The global installed capacity across the world is distributed as follows: 39% Middle East; 3% Oceania; 18% Americas; 8% Africa; 11% Europe; and 21% Asia [5]. The major applications of these desalination systems are for producing drinking water (59% of the fresh water produced) and for industry uses (36%) [5]. Other uses are tourist facilities (2%), irrigation (2%), and military purposes, demonstrations, etc. (1%) [5]. It is well known that reducing the carbon footprint in the desalination sector requires a reduction in the use of fossil fuels and, in the most optimistic of scenarios, their complete replacement with non-polluting renewable energy sources (RESs) [6]. The trend among desalination systems installed during recent years is to use energy recovery devices (ERDs) to reduce the specific energy consumption (SEC) below 3 kWh/m3 [7].
Water scarcity can be particularly problematic for islands and more and more of them across the world are looking to desalination to cover their water needs [8]. In this regard, there has been a growing interest on the part of the institutions that govern and manage water and energy resources on these islands in projects that use RESs to power desalination technologies. In this sense, the level of technological advancement achieved by wind-based energy systems, readily accessible in the market with a diverse range of rated powers, has resulted in a remarkable surge in their global installation, both onshore and offshore [6,9]. Presently, wind technology stands out as one of the most economically viable renewable energy options, boasting energy prices from newly established wind farms that can rival those of conventional power generation systems. The cost-effectiveness of energy production from a wind farm is significantly influenced by the wind resource at the site and the project’s financial structure. Nevertheless, in many regions, wind energy can serve as a cost-effective fuel, even without government subsidies. According to Ali Abdelkareem et al. [10], the majority of studies in the literature have employed wind power in conjunction with desalination systems driven either mechanically or electrically, as these systems prove to be more compatible for integration with wind power. Additionally, in recent years, diverse scientific studies have also been published proposing developments along this line [6,10,11]. Many of these are theoretical and simulate desalinated water production on islands with the participation of renewables [12]. Although to a lesser extent, works have also been published describing actual projects that have been undertaken on islands in which the desalination plant installations are partly or wholly wind-powered [13].
Several of these experimental works have been undertaken in the Canary Archipelago (Spain), classified as an outermost region of the European Union. The islands have commonly endured freshwater shortage issues, with these becoming exacerbated over the past five decades in many of the islands with the development of mass tourism. The climate conditions of the islands, especially the low precipitation levels, and the geomorphological circumstances explain both the absence of exploitable surface waters (a significant factor throughout the inhabited history of the islands) and, indeed, their interest in desalination. Because of the limited water resources, more notable on some islands than others, the first actions that were taken aimed to meet the water demand using whatever desalination or water reclamation technology was available at the time [14]. In fact, the archipelago was a pioneer in Europe in the application of desalination and, over time, the studies undertaken in this field on the islands enabled reductions in SEC and, hence, in water production costs [7,15]. Subsequently, given the particular energy characteristics of the archipelago (no conventional energy sources and a highly oil-centered energy dependency [16]), a historic public and private initiative of sustainable energy–water strategies was embarked upon [17]. The first private actions arose from the need to reduce the electricity bills that were being paid by the owners of plants for energy-intensive desalination processes [18].
In most cases, the use of RESs contributes to lowering fossil fuel-based electricity production. Given the energy structure of the islands, with grids that present stability weaknesses in the event of high renewable penetration, the Canary Islands government published specific regulations [19,20] for the operation of grid-connected desalination systems with renewable participation to ensure their greater integration. This issue was addressed in a recent study that introduced a method for validating the strategies proposed in a planning approach [21]. The study conducted a more specific analysis of the impact on grid stabilization when integrating high levels of RESs into the energy system [21]. The actions that were taken had the prime objectives of reducing external energy dependency, satisfying the water demand of the islands’ inhabitants and the very large number of tourists who visit the islands each year, and exploiting the available renewable potential (principally wind and solar) [22]. In this context, R&D efforts began to intensify, considering diverse operating strategies for desalination plants powered by renewables. In most cases, the most feasible renewable option on the islands was wind, given the excessively high costs associated at the time with solar photovoltaic (PV) plants, the limited availability and potential sustainability problems of biomass due to the characteristics of the islands, and topographical restrictions to the use of hydropower on many of the islands. The strategies that have been considered include the exclusive use of renewables to power a desalination plant [23], although always bearing in mind the need to resolve the grid and other problems associated with the generally intermittent nature of these energy sources. In this context, systems have been developed based on different desalination technologies and on the concept of operational flexibility to cover the water demand [7]. Some recent studies have proposed optimizing a hybrid photovoltaic–wind system [24]. Systems have also been considered using water storage and regulation and battery-based energy storage [25,26]. Control systems based on the use of AI have been integrated and the performance of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes tested when operating under fluctuating operating conditions [27,28].

Aim, Novelty, and Key Contributions of This Paper

Although several papers can be found in the literature that analyze wind-powered desalination systems, as far as the authors of the present paper are aware, no study has been made which synthesizes in a single work the major references in the field of island-based wind-powered desalination systems. The present study aims to fill this gap and to analyze island-based desalination needs, showing the importance of desalination in this type of geographic region. In addition, a synthesis is offered of the wind-powered desalination systems that have been implemented, through an analysis of their typology and scale of use.

2. Methods

2.1. Search Procedure Followed

2.1.1. Journal Identification

In this study, an international bibliometric analysis method was applied based on a previous work by Østergaard et al. [29] in the field of energy planning. A purely bibliometric article analysis was carried out. Firstly, international scientific journals were screened using the search term “wind desalination system island” within their indexed data. A more extensive search was then undertaken in which a total of 2344 potential publications of interest were identified. However, it is well known that search engines can generate a significant number of irrelevant publications. For example, ScienceDirect searches all the text of a paper resulting in numerous identifications which only mention the words used in the search term. Manual reading and evaluation of the 2344 initially identified publications was thus undertaken, with 144 finally determined to be valid for selection for the analysis carried out in this study. As some of these 144 articles contained various case studies and could be classified into different categories, the present work differentiates between the total number of selected articles (144) and the total number of case studies (181). These articles were then classified to identify and categorize them by year and type.
The search procedure employed in this work was divided into the various steps described above and summarized in Figure 1.
The search term “wind desalination system island” was selected to identify publications that focused on island-based desalination projects using wind power.
The first step in the process was to identify journals (Table 1) which used the selected search term. The internationally recognized Scopus search engine was used for this purpose, identifying journals which contained studies that included the search term. This database was then used for a more intensive search of relevant articles.
An advanced search and evaluation of relevant articles was performed in this step, ensuring that the bulk of the research described in the article focused on the topic of interest rather than simply mentioning it. The journals’ proprietary search engines (ScienceDirect, for example), which allow more detailed searches and may include category selection, were used in this step. Of the articles that were identified, those that contained the search term but in an irrelevant context or without describing or referring to the topic of interest were discarded, along with those that were duplicates (mainly copies of abstracts published separately from the main article).

2.1.2. Classification and Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of the Articles Found

In this step, an initial classification of the articles was made by year of publication and category. Two main categories were considered: on-grid and off-grid wind-powered desalination systems. A more exhaustive classification was then performed, employing the subcategories shown in Figure 2 and differentiating between theoretical analyses and simulations (Table 2 and Table 3), projects which are or have been in operation (Table 4), and experimental systems/projects (Table 5). Finally, a qualitative analysis of the most relevant articles in each category was performed.
The classification used corresponds to that published in [30], but on this occasion was applied to wind-powered desalination systems. They are categorized into two main groups, as illustrated in Figure 2. The first group comprises systems where the desalination plants and wind farms are integrated with the conventional power grid, while the second group encompasses standalone microgrids or small-scale systems that operate independently of the conventional grid. Within the first group, two subcategories can be identified:
(a)
systems where the entire energy generated by wind turbines is directly injected into the electrical grid, with the desalination plant serving as an additional load on the conventional electrical system;
(b)
interconnected microgrids where wind turbines are connected in parallel to the conventional grid but primarily utilize their generated energy to directly power the desalination plant. Any surplus energy is fed into the conventional grid, while any shortfall is supplemented by the conventional grid.
Similarly, three subcategories exist within the second group:
(a)
standalone microgrids where the desalination plant is directly connected to the wind power generation system and an energy storage system is employed;
(b)
standalone microgrids where the desalination plant is directly connected to the wind power generation system and no energy storage system is employed;
(c)
standalone microgrids where the desalination plant is powered by a hybrid energy system.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Identification of Scientific Journals Selected for the Study

3.1.1. Article Identification

The results of the method employed are described in this section. Firstly, the search results are given, and this is followed by an analysis of the most relevant articles in each category.
The earliest identified use of the search term was in theoretical articles published in 1999, which was the first year used for the classification process that extended up to 2023. As for articles which considered actual wind-powered desalination projects/prototypes, the first identified use of the search term was in 1979, although from 1999 onwards it appears in a considerably more extensive number of publications.
Journal selection was performed using the method described in Section 2.1.1. Table 1 shows the journals grouped by publishing house along with the corresponding publisher’s search facility, when available. Elsevier has the most journals considered in the present study (35%), followed by 16 other publishers. Just four of the selected journals (Desalination, Applied Energy, Energy, and Renewable Energy) are responsible for 68.7% of the articles considered in this study. Desalination alone published 38.7% of the articles, with this attributable to the close relation of the topic with the energy–water nexus and its close alignment to the scope of the journal. The corresponding percentage contributions of Renewable Energy, Applied Energy, and Energy are also considerable (11.1%, 9.7%, and 9.7%, respectively). Analogously to the case of Desalination, these three journals include in their scope topics related to renewable energy systems, wind power, energy transitioning, etc., which are also in close alignment with the topic tackled in the present analysis.

3.1.2. Classification of the Identified Works

Table 2 shows the theoretical works identified after applying the previously described search method. The 2344 articles originally identified were filtered to select the most relevant articles in which the search item appeared.
Compared with the initial 2344 articles, only relatively few were finally considered relevant. Many that included the search term were discarded because the actual research study in the article was not related to the topic under consideration. Numerous articles were also discarded that referred only to desalination systems powered with solar PV generation or wave energy converters as unique technology. A significant increase in the number of publications which considered the use of hydrogen as an alternative technology was also observed for the period 2021–2023. These were also discarded as they mentioned wind power or the wind–desalination binomial only in passing without entering into greater detail. Articles which considered the use of any other energy source in addition to wind in off-grid systems are included in the Hybrid category.
Table 3 presents the predominant software/tools utilized in the previously identified theoretical studies. A significant number of these studies constructed their own tools through custom-developed software programming. Additionally, several studies followed a similar approach of developing their own tools using MATLAB. In fewer instances, researchers used HOMER, EnergyPlan, Vensim, or H2RES.
Table 4 shows only those articles which consider and describe projects that are or have been in operation, and Table 5 those which consider and describe experimental projects.

3.2. Quantitative Analysis of the Results

The quantitative analysis of the results is represented in a series of graphs and maps shown in Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7.
Figure 3 represents the total number of case studies of the two on-grid and three off-grid subcategories in Table 2, Table 4, and Table 5 and their respective percentages. It can be seen that more studies are dedicated to off-grid than on-grid systems, whether considered numerically (115 vs. 66) or in percentage terms (64% vs. 36%), with hybrid systems the most considered type.
Figure 4 shows the evolution of the five subcategories over time, identifying the number of studies in each of them from 1979 to 2023.
Figure 5 is a map showing the island location of all the wind-powered desalination projects that are or have been in operation. Figure 6 shows the island location of all the theoretical projects that have been undertaken. Finally, Figure 7 shows all the islands where desalination is presently or about to be carried out, but which do not yet use wind as an energy source. This figure was created based on the references indicated in the legend (Figure 7). The relevance of these locations lies in the growing trend for covering electrical energy demand with RESs and, hence, the potential for these islands to be future locations where wind-powered desalination systems are set up.

3.3. Qualitative Analysis and Discussion of Results

In this section, a comparative analysis is made of the results obtained in the search and classification of articles which contained the search term “wind desalination system island”. The analysis is conducted considering some of the studies found in each section.
One of the most notable of the theoretical works is that conducted on the island of San Vicente, in Cape Verde [66]. This study, which used the H2RES tool [197,198] to simulate the use and integration of RESs in the desalination that the island requires, is an example of the on-grid subcategory of 100% connection to the grid, as all the generated energy is fed to the grid and this energy is then used for desalination. This same consumption type can be seen in other studies, with the islands of Antigua and Barbuda using only solar and wind power [107] while a diesel system was added in the study carried out for an island in China [94].
Included among the theoretical works in the second on-grid subcategory is the study performed by Kaldellis et al. [49], which offers an economic and technical analysis of a possible installation on Greek islands in the Aegean Sea (the Cyclades or the Dodecanese islands) using wind and solar energy to power a desalination plant. If the system is unable to generate sufficient energy to meet the demand, energy is purchased from the island’s grid. Another study, also located in the Aegean Sea but this time for the island of Fournoi [86], describes a system with a wind farm, a small hydroelectric plant, and a pumping station. According to the results of the study, 70% of the energy produced would be used for desalination and pumping, with the remaining 30% fed into the grid.
Among the theoretical studies of off-grid systems without energy storage is that by Carta et al. [25] of the island of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), in which a simulation was performed of a system comprising a seawater RO desalination plant powered by a wind farm without batteries. To compensate for this lack of energy storage, a flywheel was used to enable the variable operation of the desalination plant. In [60], Kaldellis et al. compared two off-grid systems with battery energy storage, one using wind power and the other solar. The study was carried out for various islands in the Aegean Sea. Georgiou et al. [76] also carried out a comparative study, on this occasion from economic, environmental, social, and technological perspectives, of five proposals for islands in the Aegean Sea, with one of the proposals being an off-grid wind-powered desalination system with battery energy storage. As for the off-grid hybrid system subcategory, a study of a hybrid wind–solar plant for desalination was undertaken for Croatian islands of the Split–Dalmatia region [35]. Kaldellis et al. [55] also designed a hybrid wind–diesel system for the Greek islands of Andros, Naxos, and Kea.
With respect to projects that are or have been in operation, one of the most notable was developed on the island of Rügen [130], with on-grid consumption and the peculiarity that surplus energy is not dumped into the grid but used to raise the seawater feed temperature and thereby obtain greater distillation in the system’s mechanical vapor-compression process. Liu et al. [132] analyzed an off-grid wind-powered RO desalination system without any additional battery energy storage installed on Coconut Island (Hawaii), whereas the off-grid wind-powered desalination system installed on the island of Utsira (Norway) did use such an energy storage device [143]. Cabrera et al. [28] compared two systems in operation on the island of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain), one with and one without batteries for energy storage. As for off-grid hybrid systems, Zhao et al. [149] studied a wind–diesel microgrid installed on the island of Dongfushan (China) with the peculiarity that the system uses the desalination system to control the increase in renewable energy that is generated.
An example of an actual commercial wind-driven desalination system currently providing water for an island community is the project developed on Milos Island (Greece), commissioned in 2007. It was designed to meet the water needs of the island, which previously relied on water transported by tanker boats from Athens. The seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant is capable of producing 4500 m3/day, driven by an 850kW wind turbine and connected to the existing grid. In this manner, the system effectively fulfills the island’s water demand even during peak seasons [199]. Table 6 displays this in addition to other commercial systems that are currently operational supplying water to inhabitants.
As for experimental systems, Miranda et al. [158] constructed a small-scale prototype to simulate an off-grid standalone system with a 2.2 kW wind turbine connected directly to an RO desalination system and without battery energy storage. A similar prototype was tested by Heijman et al. [160], but in this case a direct mechanical drive was employed meaning that no electricity was required for the transfer of energy between the system’s windmill and the RO desalination installation. The system also had low- and high-speed limitations. Among the experimental hybrid systems, Uche et al. [163] developed a prototype that used a small wind turbine and five photovoltaic/thermal collectors to desalinate water using an RO process. The system can be scaled up and was designed for isolated off-grid areas, as commonly found on islands.
The results obtained in the present study reveal a clear year-on-year increase in the number of publications, with this particularly evident in the past 6 years (Figure 4). This may be partly attributable to the growing awareness and importance of the impact of climate change on the scarcity of water resources, and partly to the considerable increase in concern about the use of fossil fuels and the general socioeconomic context which favors the development of RE-based systems. It can therefore be argued that the increase in the types of publications considered in the present study follows a similar trend to studies that tackle the energy transition to renewable sources.
The first studies found in the search, dating back mainly to the 1980s, involved projects that were in operation [126,127,128,129,130]. Nonetheless, theoretical studies dominated overall, representing 62% of the total. This indicates a greater predisposition to the undertaking of studies and simulations in the theoretical sphere, with relatively few works being executed and going beyond the trial stage.
The dominance of case studies focused on off-grid systems was also observed (Figure 3 and Figure 4). This is unsurprising, as many studies seek greater autonomy in wind-powered desalination [13,28,148] and, in addition, the limitations inherent to islands are an influencing factor with regard to the strategies that can be proposed. It is not uncommon on islands for off-grid standalone systems to be the main option, as the grid systems may be very limited or even non-existent [49,127]. These standalone micro-grid systems primarily rely on a combination of wind turbines, RO-based desalination plants, and battery storage, though proposals for hybrid systems (comprising some other additional energy source) have grown in number in recent years.
It can be seen in Figure 5 and Table 6 that a significant percentage of the wind-powered desalination projects in operation or under trial are in the Canary Islands (38.7% of the total). With 24 wind-powered desalination projects undertaken, it could be argued that this region resembles a test facility that confirms the feasibility of this type of project and its potential for transfer to other islands. The projects undertaken on these and other islands will undoubtedly be of interest to those islands shown in Figure 6 where theoretical studies and simulations have been performed (most notably in the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea, with 29 studies corresponding to 24.4% of the total) and, indeed, the islands shown in Figure 7 where desalination systems are up and running but wind power has not yet been scientifically considered as an energy source option.
After analyzing the various studies considered in this research, it is possible to assert that wind power and reverse osmosis desalination systems have been revealed as a relevant combination to reduce emissions in the desalination industry and increase resilience in water supply systems on islands. For large-scale desalination, on-grid wind energy systems are the preferable option [211]. In these systems, the wind turbines feed all their generated energy into the grid. This approach allows desalination plants to operate under stable, consistent conditions, similar to traditional methods. Additionally, with proper design of wind farms, achieving a zero net energy exchange between wind farms and desalination plants is possible [211]. However, in smaller, isolated grids with limited capacity, adding more wind farms can destabilize the system. To overcome this challenge and increase wind energy utilization, the trend is shifting towards large, wind-powered desalination systems connected to the main grid [211]. This solution combines the benefits of on-grid systems with improved stability for weaker grids. The desalination plants utilize most of the wind energy directly, while the system can still draw from or contribute to the main grid as needed. In the case of medium-scale and standalone wind-powered desalination projects, several systems have been built for research purposes, but most have been shut down after their projects ended, despite demonstrating technical viability. However, the interest persists, and companies are exploring off-grid hybrid (conventional–renewable) power systems to provide energy and alleviate water challenges in remote regions [211].
As for the gaps/challenges identified, on-grid systems, with their stable grid support and predictable desalination plant operation, face relatively few challenges. This is because the grid typically buffers the uncertainty introduced by wind energy. However, weak grids limit the penetration of renewables to avoid instability. Conversely, managing and controlling the interconnected components of standalone and hybrid systems presents significantly more complex challenges due to the variable operating conditions and resulting uncertainty in desalination processes.
Some of the main lines of research and trends in this field are related to the key gaps detected:
-
The exploration of different energy storage systems to manage the intrinsic variability and intermittency of wind power [212].
-
The development of energy management strategies that propose the adaptation of the production (or part of it) of the desalination plant to the available wind power [213].
-
The use of artificial intelligence to manage the operating setpoints on the desalination plants [27,212] or to simulate and optimally design the integrated renewable desalination subsystems [6,28].
-
The use of dynamic energy-regulation systems based on flywheel or supercapacitor systems to manage the variability/intermittency of wind power [150,212,214].
-
The approach of smart energy planning concepts to support the design of the entire energy–water system on the islands, taking into account the synergies between the different desalination and wind power sectors [26].
Additionally, due to spatial constraints limiting onshore wind energy expansion on islands [215], offshore wind farms (WF) have begun to be considered theoretically in very recent research [6]. Despite not yet having identified any actual project that combines offshore wind turbines with desalination systems, standard offshore WF projects for islands present the challenge of bathymetric restrictions [216]. Therefore, the majority of the suggested plans involve deploying floating wind turbines [217,218]. According to [219], in the case of floating offshore WFs, the specific investment cost would be EUR 4200/kW, which is higher than the mean for onshore WFs. It is another challenge to combine this technology with desalination, because the specific cost of the water produced could be EUR 2.57/m3, which is still six times higher than the cost generated by desalination plants with capacities ranging between 100,000 and 300,000 m3/day that use conventional energy [6].

4. Conclusions

This article gathers the works that have been published in scientific journals to 2023 that have dealt with theoretical studies as well as experimental projects of wind-powered desalination systems on islands, discarding those based in continental regions of the planet.
All the studies were classified into various categories according to their characteristics: theoretical studies, experimental studies, and projects with both on-grid and off-grid connection. A total of 2344 articles were analyzed, of which 144 were selected, including 181 case studies. The vast majority of the studies analyzed consider it essential to continue with this line of research until the projects proposed in the theoretical framework are implemented, as the particularities of islands and their water–energy dependence give such initiatives strategic importance. Almost all the studies analyzed comment on the high economic cost of the desalination process, mainly due to the high energy consumption of desalination plants. Therefore, the use of wind power can be considered a critical strategy for islands that have this resource, enabling CO2 emission reductions and contributing to the fight against climate change.
In general terms, the following can be stated:
-
Scientific interest in studies dealing with wind-powered water desalination has been growing steadily since the first reviewed publication in 1979.
-
The pairing of wind power and reverse osmosis desalination systems has emerged as a noteworthy solution for mitigating emissions in the desalination industry and bolstering resilience in water supply systems on islands.
-
On-grid wind energy systems are the preferred choice for large-scale desalination. In these systems, the energy generated by wind turbines is fed into the grid, allowing desalination plants to operate under stable conditions similar to traditional methods. Properly designed wind farms can achieve a zero net energy exchange between the wind farms and desalination plants.
-
In smaller isolated grids with limited capacity, adding more wind farms can destabilize the system. To overcome this, there is a shift towards large wind-powered desalination systems connected to the main grid, offering advantages of stability for weaker grids. These systems enable direct harnessing of most wind energy by desalination plants while maintaining flexibility to interact with the main grid.
-
Despite the construction of medium-scale and standalone wind-powered desalination projects for research, many were deactivated after demonstrating technical viability. However, ongoing interest has prompted exploration of off-grid hybrid power systems to tackle energy and water challenges in remote regions.
A high level of scientific specialization and a considerable number of theoretical and experimental studies were identified relating to the Canary Islands (Spain) and the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea. This shows that the scarcity of resources (water and energy in this case) of the populations involved can have a favorable impact on the development of knowledge-based strategies to mitigate the negative effects of such scarcity. The technical and administrative knowledge and knowhow generated through the energy–water strategies followed in the Canary Archipelago can be of important use in other islands of the world that have not yet considered the use of renewable energies to cover their water needs or are taking their first steps in this field and wish to undertake climate change mitigation measures and strategies to achieve carbon neutrality in water desalination.
This work also offers the scientific community a series of maps, showing the islands where wind-powered desalination systems have been set up and theoretical studies undertaken. Faced by water scarcity issues, often exacerbated by climate change and a rising population, these islands have opted to pursue solutions that involve strategies that combine wind power and desalination systems.
As future trends in the field, the following can be highlighted:
-
Exploring various energy storage systems to manage the inherent variability and intermittency of wind power.
-
Developing energy management strategies suggesting the adaptation of desalination plant production to the available wind power.
-
Utilizing artificial intelligence to handle operating setpoints for desalination plants and optimize the design of integrated renewable desalination subsystems.
-
Implementing dynamic energy regulation systems based on flywheel or supercapacitor systems to handle the variability and intermittency of wind power.
-
Applying smart energy planning concepts to design entire energy–water systems on islands, considering synergies between different desalination and wind power sectors.
Additionally, due to spatial constraints limiting onshore wind energy expansion on islands, offshore wind farms have begun to be considered theoretically in very recent studies. The main challenges that this technology presents when combined with desalination systems on islands are the bathymetric restrictions and the higher costs of floating offshore wind farms, with specific investment costs higher than the mean for onshore wind farms.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.C. and J.A.C.; methodology, C.M., P.C. and J.A.C.; validation, P.C. and J.A.C. formal analysis, C.M., P.C. and J.A.C.; investigation, C.M.; resources, P.C. and J.A.C.; data curation, C.M.; writing—original draft preparation, C.M., P.C., J.A.C. and N.M.-M., writing—review and editing, C.M., P.C., J.A.C. and N.M.-M.; visualization, C.M. and P.C., supervision, P.C. and J.A.C.; project administration, P.C. and J.A.C.; funding acquisition, P.C. and J.A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research is part of the project PID2022-142148OA-I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/FEDER, UE. Also, this research has been conducted thanks to the predoctoral training contract within the ULPGC Research Staff Training Program held by Carlos Matos.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data available on request due to restrictions eg. privacy or ethical.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Kang, J.N.; Wei, Y.M.; Liu, L.C.; Han, R.; Yu, B.Y.; Wang, J.W. Energy systems for climate change mitigation: A systematic review. Appl. Energy 2020, 263, 114602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Triantafyllou, P.; Koroneos, C.; Kondili, E.; Kollas, P.; Zafirakis, D.; Ktenidis, P.; Kaldellis, J.K. Optimum green energy solution to address the remote islands’ water-energy nexus: The case study of Nisyros island. Heliyon 2021, 7, e07838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Visser-Quinn, A.; Beevers, L.; Lau, T.; Gosling, R. Mapping future water scarcity in a water abundant nation: Near-term projections for Scotland. Clim. Risk Manag. 2021, 32, 100302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Alameddine, I.; El-Fadel, M. Stack emissions from desalination plants: A parametric sensitivity analysis for exposure assessment. Desalination 2005, 177, 15–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Eke, J.; Yusuf, A.; Giwa, A.; Sodiq, A. The global status of desalination: An assessment of current desalination technologies, plants and capacity. Desalination 2020, 495, 114633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A.; Matos, C.; Rosales-Asensio, E.; Lund, H. Reduced desalination carbon footprint on islands with weak electricity grids. The case of Gran Canaria. Appl. Energy 2024, 358, 122564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Urrea, S.A.; Reyes, F.D.; Suárez, B.P.; de la Fuente Bencomo, J.A. Technical review, evaluation and efficiency of energy recovery devices installed in the Canary Islands desalination plants. Desalination 2019, 450, 54–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Rachman, R.M.; Li, S.; Missimer, T.M. SWRO feed water quality improvement using subsurface intakes in Oman, Spain, Turks and Caicos Islands, and Saudi Arabia. Desalination 2014, 351, 88–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Carta, J.A.; Cabrera, P.; González, J. 2.20—Wind Power Integration. In Comprehensive Renewable Energy, 2nd ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2022; Volumes 1–9, pp. 644–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Abdelkareem, M.A.; Al Radi, M.; Mahmoud, M.; Sayed, E.T.; Salameh, T.; Alqadi, R.; Kais, E.C.A.; Olabi, A.G. Recent progress in wind energy-powered desalination. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2024, 47, 102286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Okura, S.S.; Ponte, M.C.A.; Palombella, F.O.; da Silva, L.S.; Dias, S.V.; Almeida, J.R.F.; Matos, F.F.S. Evaluation of direct coupling between conventional windmills and reverse osmosis desalination systems at low wind speeds. Energy Convers. Manag. 2023, 295, 117654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Wang, Z.; Lin, X.; Tong, N.; Li, Z.; Sun, S.; Liu, C. Optimal planning of a 100% renewable energy island supply system based on the integration of a concentrating solar power plant and desalination units. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2020, 117, 105707. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Carta, J.A.; González, J.; Subiela, V. The SDAWES project: An ambitious R&D prototype for wind-powered desalination. Desalination 2004, 161, 33–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Gómez-Gotor, A.; Del Río-Gamero, B.; Prado, I.P.; Casañas, A. The history of desalination in the Canary Islands. Desalination 2018, 428, 86–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Khawaji, A.; Kutubkhanah, I.; Wie, J. Advances in seawater desalination technologies. Desalination 2008, 109, 195–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. The Canary Islands Government. Annual Energy Report for the Canary Islands. 2018. Available online: https://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/energia/descargas/sita/Anuario2014.pdf (accessed on 10 April 2017).
  17. Calero, R.; Carta, J.A. Action plan for wind energy development in the Canary Islands. Energy Policy 2004, 32, 1185–1197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Sadhwani, J.; Veza, J. Desalination and energy consumption in Canary Islands. Desalination 2008, 168, 39–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. BOC—2015/029. Jueves 12 de Febrero de 2015—Anuncio 605. 2015. Available online: https://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/boc/2015/029/index.html (accessed on 6 March 2024).
  20. BOC—2003/084. Lunes 5 de Mayo de 2003—720. 2003. Available online: https://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/boc/2003/084/ (accessed on 6 March 2024).
  21. Jiménez, A.; Cabrera, P.; Medina, J.F.; Østergaard, P.A.; Lund, H. Smart energy system approach validated by electrical analysis for electric vehicle integration in islands. Energy Convers. Manag. 2024, 302, 118121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Piernavieja, G.; Veza, J.M.; Padrón, J.M. Experience in desalination training and know-how in the Canary Islands. Desalination 2001, 141, 205–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Borge-Diez, D.; García-Moya, F.J.; Cabrera-Santana, P.; Rosales-Asensio, E. Feasibility analysis of wind and solar powered desalination plants: An application to islands. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 764, 142878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Mallek, M.; Elleuch, M.A.; Euchi, J.; Jerbi, Y. Optimum design of on-grid PV/wind hybrid system for desalination plant: A case study in Sfax, Tunisia. Desalination 2024, 576, 117358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Carta, J.A.; Cabrera, P. Optimal sizing of stand-alone wind-powered seawater reverse osmosis plants without use of massive energy storage. Appl. Energy 2021, 304, 117888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A.; Lund, H.; Thellufsen, J.Z. Large-scale optimal integration of wind and solar photovoltaic power in water-energy systems on islands. Energy Convers. Manag. 2021, 235, 113982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A.; González, J.; Melián, G. Artificial neural networks applied to manage the variable operation of a simple seawater reverse osmosis plant. Desalination 2017, 416, 140–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A.; González, J.; Melián, G. Wind-driven SWRO desalination prototype with and without batteries: A performance simulation using machine learning models. Desalination 2018, 435, 77–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Østergaard, P.A.; Lund, H.; Thellufsen, J.Z.; Sorknæs, P.; Mathiesen, B.V. Review and validation of EnergyPLAN. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 168, 112724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Kucera, J. Introduction to Desalination. In Desalination: Water from Water; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019; pp. 1–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Voivontas, D.; Yannopoulos, K.; Rados, K.; Zervos, A.; Assimacopoulos, D. Market potential of renewable energy powered desalination systems in Greece. Desalination 1999, 121, 159–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Kabouris, J.; Zouros, N.D.; Manos, G.A.; Contaxis, G.C.; Vournas, C.D. Computational environment to investigate wind integration into small autonomous systems. Renew. Energy 1999, 18, 61–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Hopkins, W. Small to medium size wind turbines: Local use of a local resource: Paper prepared for the World Renewable Energy Congress-V Florence, 20–25 September 1998. Renew. Energy 1999, 16, 944–947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Afgan, N.H.; Carvalho, M.G.; Hovanov, N.V. Energy system assessment with sustainability indicators. Energy Policy 2000, 28, 603–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Vujčić, R.; Krneta, M. Wind-driven seawater desalination plant for agricultural development on the islands of the County of Split and Dalmatia. Renew. Energy 2000, 19, 173–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. García-Rodríguez, L.; Romero-Ternero, V.; Gómez-Camacho, C. Economic analysis of wind-powered desalination. Desalination 2001, 137, 259–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Voivontas, D.; Misirlis, K.; Manoli, E.; Arampatzis, G.; Assimacopoulos, D. A tool for the design of desalination plants powered by renewable energies. Desalination 2001, 133, 175–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Assimacopoulos, D.; El-Nashar, A.M. RE powers desalination. Filtr. Sep. 2001, 38, 30–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Kaldellis, J.K.; Kavadias, K.A. Optimal wind-hydro solution for Aegean Sea islands’ electricity-demand fulfilment. Appl. Energy 2001, 70, 333–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Kaldellis, J.K.; Kavadias, K.; Christinakis, E. Evaluation of the wind–hydro energy solution for remote islands. Energy Convers. Manag. 2001, 42, 1105–1120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Manolakos, D.; Papadakis, G.; Papantonis, D.; Kyritsis, S. A simulation-optimisation programme for designing hybrid energy systems for supplying electricity and fresh water through desalination to remote areas: Case study: The Merssini village, Donoussa island, Aegean Sea, Greece. Energy 2001, 26, 679–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. García-Rodríguez, L. Seawater desalination driven by renewable energies: A review. Desalination 2002, 143, 103–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Papadopoulos, D.P.; Dermentzoglou, J.C. Economic viability analysis of planned WEC system installations for electrical power production. Renew. Energy 2002, 25, 199–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Bakos, G.C. Feasibility study of a hybrid wind/hydro power-system for low-cost electricity production. Appl. Energy 2002, 72, 599–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Kaldellis, J.K. Parametrical investigation of the wind–hydro electricity production solution for Aegean Archipelago. Energy Convers. Manag. 2002, 43, 2097–2113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Avlonitis, S.A.; Poulios, I.; Vlachakis, N.; Tsitmidelis, S.; Kouroumbas, K.; Avlonitis, D.; Pavlou, M. Water resources management for the prefecture of Dodekanisa of Greece. Desalination 2003, 152, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Witte, T.; Siegfriedsen, S.; El-Allawy, M. WindDeSalter® Technology Direct use of wind energy for seawater desalination by vapour compression or reverse osmosis. Desalination 2003, 156, 275–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Bode, S.; Hapke, J.; Zisler, S. Need and options for a regenerative energy supply in holiday facilities. Tour. Manag. 2003, 24, 257–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Kaldellis, J.K.; Kavadias, K.A.; Kondili, E. Renewable energy desalination plants for the Greek islands—Technical and economic considerations. Desalination 2004, 170, 187–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Manoli, E.; Assimacopoulos, D.; Karavitis, C.A. Water supply management approaches using US on the island of Rhodes, Greece. Desalination 2004, 161, 179–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Mohamed, E.S.; Papadakis, G. Design, simulation and economic analysis of a stand-alone reverse osmosis desalination unit powered by wind turbines and photovoltaics. Desalination 2004, 164, 87–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Romero-Ternero, V.; García-Rodríguez, L.; Gómez-Camacho, C. Thermoeconomic analysis of wind powered seawater reverse osmosis desalination in the Canary Islands. Desalination 2005, 186, 291–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Bueno, C.; Carta, J.A. Technical–economic analysis of wind-powered pumped hydrostorage systems. Part I: Model development. Sol. Energy 2005, 78, 382–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Koklas, P.A.; Papathanassiou, S.A. Component sizing for an autonomous wind-driven desalination plant. Renew. Energy 2006, 31, 2122–2139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Kaldellis, J.K.; Vlachos, G.T. Optimum sizing of an autonomous wind–diesel hybrid system for various representative wind-potential cases. Appl. Energy 2006, 83, 113–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Garcia, R.S.; Weisser, D. A wind-diesel system with hydrogen storage: Joint optimisation of design and dispatch. Renew. Energy 2006, 31, 2296–2320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Mathioulakis, E.; Belessiotis, V.; Delyannis, E. Desalination by using alternative energy: Review and state-of-the-art. Desalination 2007, 203, 346–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. von Medeazza, G.M.; Moreau, V. Modelling of water–energy systems. The case of desalination. Energy 2007, 32, 1024–1031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Forstmeier, M.; Mannerheim, F.; D’Amato, F.; Shah, M.; Liu, Y.; Baldea, M.; Stella, A. Feasibility study on wind-powered desalination. Desalination 2007, 203, 463–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Kaldellis, J.K.; Kavadias, K.A.; Koronakis, P.S. Comparing wind and photovoltaic stand-alone power systems used for the electrification of remote consumers. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2007, 11, 57–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Tzen, E.; Theofilloyianakos, D.; Kologios, Z. Autonomous reverse osmosis units driven by RE sources experiences and lessons learned. Desalination 2008, 221, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Fadigas, E.A.F.A.; Dias, J.R. Desalination of water by reverse osmosis using gravitational potential energy and wind energy. Desalination 2009, 237, 140–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Henderson, C.R.; Manwell, J.F.; McGowan, J.G. A wind/diesel hybrid system with desalination for Star Island, NH: Feasibility study results. Desalination 2009, 237, 318–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Qi, W.; Liu, J.; Christofides, P.D. Supervisory Predictive Control of an Integrated Wind/Solar Energy Generation and Water Desalination System. IFAC Proc. Vol. 2010, 43, 829–834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Spyrou, I.D.; Anagnostopoulos, J.S. Design study of a stand-alone desalination system powered by renewable energy sources and a pumped storage unit. Desalination 2010, 257, 137–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Segurado, R.; Krajačić, G.; Duić, N.; Alves, L. Increasing the penetration of renewable energy resources in S. Vicente, Cape Verde. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 466–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Kyriakarakos, G.; Dounis, A.I.; Rozakis, S.; Arvanitis, K.G.; Papadakis, G. Polygeneration microgrids: A viable solution in remote areas for supplying power, potable water and hydrogen as transportation fuel. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 4517–4526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Cherif, H.; Belhadj, J. Large-scale time evaluation for energy estimation of stand-alone hybrid photovoltaic–wind system feeding a reverse osmosis desalination unit. Energy 2011, 36, 6058–6067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Zejli, D.; Ouammi, A.; Sacile, R.; Dagdougui, H.; Elmidaoui, A. An optimization model for a mechanical vapor compression desalination plant driven by a wind/PV hybrid system. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 4042–4054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Stocker, L.; Burke, G.; Kennedy, D.; Wood, D. Sustainability and climate adaptation: Using Google Earth to engage stakeholders. Ecol. Econ. 2012, 80, 15–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Kyriakarakos, G.; Dounis, A.I.; Arvanitis, K.G.; Papadakis, G. A fuzzy cognitive maps–petri nets energy management system for autonomous polygeneration microgrids. Appl. Soft Comput. 2012, 12, 3785–3797. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Kyriakarakos, G.; Dounis, A.I.; Arvanitis, K.G.; Papadakis, G. A fuzzy logic energy management system for polygeneration microgrids. Renew. Energy 2012, 41, 315–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Kaldellis, J.K.; Gkikaki, A.; Kaldelli, E.; Kapsali, M. Investigating the energy autonomy of very small non-interconnected islands. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2012, 16, 476–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Peñate, B.; García-Rodríguez, L. Current trends and future prospects in the design of seawater reverse osmosis desalination technology. Desalination 2012, 284, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Segurado, R.; Costa, M.; Duić, N.; Carvalho, M.G. Integrated analysis of energy and water supply in islands. Case study of S. Vicente, Cape Verde. Energy 2015, 92, 639–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Georgiou, D.; Mohammed, E.S.; Rozakis, S. Multi-criteria decision making on the energy supply configuration of autonomous desalination units. Renew. Energy 2015, 75, 459–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Smaoui, M.; Abdelkafi, A.; Krichen, L. Optimal sizing of stand-alone photovoltaic/wind/hydrogen hybrid system supplying a desalination unit. Sol. Energy 2015, 120, 263–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Segurado, R.; Madeira, J.F.A.; Costa, M.; Duić, N.; Carvalho, M.G. Optimization of a wind powered desalination and pumped hydro storage system. Appl. Energy 2016, 177, 487–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Mentis, D.; Karalis, G.; Zervos, A.; Howells, M.; Taliotis, C.; Bazilian, M.; Rogner, H. Desalination using renewable energy sources on the arid islands of South Aegean Sea. Energy 2016, 94, 262–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Gökçek, M.; Gökçek, Ö.B. Technical and economic evaluation of freshwater production from a wind-powered small-scale seawater reverse osmosis system (WP-SWRO). Desalination 2016, 381, 47–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Salazar, J.; Tadeo, F.; de Prada, C. Predictive Control of Microgrids with Mixed Sources for Desalination in Remote Areas. IFAC-PapersOnLine 2016, 49, 244–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Nagaraj, R.; Thirugnanamurthy, D.; Rajput, M.M.; Panigrahi, B.K. Techno-economic analysis of hybrid power system sizing applied to small desalination plants for sustainable operation. Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 2016, 5, 269–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Caldera, U.; Bogdanov, D.; Breyer, C. Local cost of seawater RO desalination based on solar PV and wind energy: A global estimate. Desalination 2016, 385, 207–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Tsai, Y.C.; Chan, Y.K.; Ko, F.K.; Yang, J.T. Integrated operation of renewable energy sources and water resources. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 160, 439–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Fang, X.; Yang, Q.; Dong, W. Fuzzy decision based energy dispatch in offshore industrial microgrid with desalination process and multi-type DGs. Energy 2018, 148, 744–755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Bertsiou, M.; Feloni, E.; Karpouzos, D.; Baltas, E. Water management and electricity output of a Hybrid Renewable Energy System (HRES) in Fournoi Island in Aegean Sea. Renew. Energy 2018, 118, 790–798. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Gökçek, M. Integration of hybrid power (wind-photovoltaic-diesel-battery) and seawater reverse osmosis systems for small-scale desalination applications. Desalination 2018, 435, 210–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Ali, I.B.; Turki, M.; Belhadj, J.; Roboam, X. Optimized fuzzy rule-based energy management for a battery-less PV/wind-BWRO desalination system. Energy 2018, 159, 216–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Prieto-Prado, I.; Del Río-Gamero, B.; Gómez-Gotor, A.; Pérez-Báez, S.O. Water and Energy Self-Supply in Isolated Areas through Renewable Energies Using Hydrogen and Water as a Double Storage System. Desalination 2018, 430, 1–14. Available online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916417313875 (accessed on 21 May 2018). [CrossRef]
  90. Chen, P.; Lan, Y.; Wang, D.; Wang, W.; Liu, W.; Chong, Z.; Wang, X. Optimal Planning and Operation of CCHP System Considering Renewable Energy Integration and Seawater Desalination. Energy Procedia 2019, 158, 6490–6495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Rosales-Asensio, E.; Borge-Diez, D.; Pérez-Hoyos, A.; Colmenar-Santos, A. Reduction of water cost for an existing wind-energy-based desalination scheme: A preliminary configuration. Energy 2019, 167, 548–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Padrón, I.; Avila, D.; Marichal, G.N.; Rodríguez, J.A. Assessment of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems to supplied energy to Autonomous Desalination Systems in two islands of the Canary Archipelago. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 101, 221–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Mito, M.T.; Ma, X.; Albuflasa, H.; Davies, P.A. Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane desalination driven by wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy: State of the art and challenges for large-scale implementation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 112, 669–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Ye, B.; Jiang, J.; Cang, Y. Technical and economic feasibility analysis of an energy and fresh water coupling model for an isolated island. Energy Procedia 2019, 158, 6373–6377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Giudici, F.; Castelletti, A.; Garofalo, E.; Giuliani, M.; Maier, H.R. Dynamic, multi-objective optimal design and operation of water-energy systems for small, off-grid islands. Appl. Energy 2019, 250, 605–616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Rosales-Asensio, E.; García-Moya, F.J.; González-Martínez, A.; Borge-Diez, D.; de Simón-Martín, M. Stress mitigation of conventional water resources in water-scarce areas through the use of renewable energy powered desalination plants: An application to the Canary Islands. Energy Rep. 2020, 6, 124–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Mehrjerdi, H. Modeling and optimization of an island water-energy nexus powered by a hybrid solar-wind renewable system. Energy 2020, 197, 117217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Campione, A.; Cipollina, A.; Calise, F.; Tamburini, A.; Galluzzo, M.; Micale, G. Coupling electrodialysis desalination with photovoltaic and wind energy systems for energy storage: Dynamic simulations and control strategy. Energy Convers. Manag. 2020, 216, 112940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Brendel, L.P.M.; Shah, V.M.; Groll, E.A.; Braun, J.E. A methodology for analyzing renewable energy opportunities for desalination and its application to Aruba. Desalination 2020, 493, 114613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Ailliot, P.; Boutigny, M.; Koutroulis, E.; Malisovas, A.; Monbet, V. Stochastic weather generator for the design and reliability evaluation of desalination systems with Renewable Energy Sources. Renew. Energy 2020, 158, 541–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Rosales-Asensio, E.; Rosales, A.E.; Colmenar-Santos, A. Surrogate optimization of coupled energy sources in a desalination microgrid based on solar PV and wind energy. Desalination 2021, 500, 114882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Skroufouta, S.; Baltas, E. Investigation of hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) for covering energy and water needs on the Island of Karpathos in Aegean Sea. Renew. Energy 2021, 173, 141–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Cabrera, P.; Folley, M.; Carta, J.A. Design and performance simulation comparison of a wave energy-powered and wind-powered modular desalination system. Desalination 2021, 514, 115173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Amin, I.; Ali, M.E.A.; Bayoumi, S.; Balah, A.; Oterkus, S.; Shawky, H.; Oterkus, E. Numerical hydrodynamics-based design of an offshore platform to support a desalination plant and a wind turbine in Egypt. Ocean Eng. 2021, 229, 108598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Melián-Martel, N.; del Río-Gamero, B.; Schallenberg-Rodríguez, J. Water cycle driven only by wind energy surplus: Towards 100% renewable energy islands. Desalination 2021, 515, 115216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Zhao, P.; Zhang, S.; Gou, F.; Xu, W.; Wang, J.; Dai, Y. The feasibility survey of an autonomous renewable seawater reverse osmosis system with underwater compressed air energy storage. Desalination 2021, 505, 114981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Karaca, A.E.; Dincer, I.; Nitefor, M. Development of an integrated solar and wind driven energy system for desalination and power generation, Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 2022, 52, 102249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Rashidi, M.M.; Mahariq, I.; Murshid, N.; Wongwises, S.; Mahian, O.; Nazari, M.A. Applying wind energy as a clean source for reverse osmosis desalination: A comprehensive review. Alex. Eng. J. 2022, 61, 12977–12989. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Wang, W.; Wang, D.; Zhao, Y.; Yu, Y.; Wang, Y. Research on capacity optimization and real-time control of island microgrid considering time-shifting load. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 990–997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Li, L.; Wang, J.; Zhong, X.; Lin, J.; Wu, N.; Zhang, Z.; Meng, C.; Wang, X.; Shah, N.; Brandon, N.; et al. Combined multi-objective optimization and agent-based modeling for a 100% renewable island energy system considering power-to-gas technology and extreme weather conditions. Appl. Energy 2022, 308, 118376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Zhao, P.; Xu, W.; Liu, A.; Wu, W.; Wang, J.; Yan, Z. Performance evaluation of a renewable driven standalone combined power and water supply system with cascade electricity and heat storage. Renew. Energy 2022, 199, 1283–1299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Das, P.; Das, B.K.; Rahman, M.; Hassan, R. Evaluating the prospect of utilizing excess energy and creating employments from a hybrid energy system meeting electricity and freshwater demands using multi-objective evolutionary algorithms. Energy 2022, 238, 121860. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Zhao, P.; Gou, F.; Xu, W.; Wang, J.; Dai, Y. Multi-objective optimization of a renewable power supply system with underwater compressed air energy storage for seawater reverse osmosis under two different operation schemes. Renew. Energy 2022, 181, 71–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Pombo, D.V.; Bindner, H.W.; Spataru, S.V.; Sørensen, P.E.; Rygaard, M. Machine learning-driven energy management of a hybrid nuclear-wind-solar-desalination plant. Desalination 2022, 537, 115871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Sarathe, S.; Baredar, P.V.; Dwivedi, G.; Tapdiya, S.; Gaurav, A. Review of various types of renewable-powered desalination technologies with economic analysis. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 56, 326–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Kiehbadroudinezhad, M.; Merabet, A.; Rajabipour, A.; Cada, M.; Kiehbadroudinezhad, S.; Khanali, M.; Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H. Optimization of wind/solar energy microgrid by division algorithm considering human health and environmental impacts for power-water cogeneration. Energy Convers. Manag. 2022, 252, 115064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Ju, L.; Liu, L.; Han, Y.; Yang, S.; Li, G.; Lu, X.; Liu, Y.; Qiao, H. Robust Multi-objective optimal dispatching model for a novel island micro energy grid incorporating biomass waste energy conversion system, desalination and power-to-hydrogen devices. Appl. Energy 2023, 343, 121176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Karaca, A.E.; Dincer, I.; Nitefor, M. A new renewable energy system integrated with compressed air energy storage and multistage desalination. Energy 2023, 268, 126723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Alawad, S.M.; Mansour, R.B.; Al-Sulaiman, F.A.; Rehman, S. Renewable energy systems for water desalination applications: A comprehensive review. Energy Convers. Manag. 2023, 286, 117035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Kariman, H.; Shafieian, A.; Khiadani, M. Small scale desalination technologies: A comprehensive review. Desalination 2023, 567, 116985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Li, Y.; Bu, F.; Li, Y.; Long, C. Optimal scheduling of island integrated energy systems considering multi-uncertainties and hydrothermal simultaneous transmission: A deep reinforcement learning approach. Appl. Energy 2023, 333, 120540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Hardjono, V.Z.P.; Reyseliani, N.; Purwanto, W.W. Planning for the integration of renewable energy systems and productive zone in Remote Island: Case of Sebira Island. Clean. Energy Syst. 2023, 4, 100057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Xu, L.; Wang, S.; Wang, Z.; Qi, X. Dual-layer self-healing strategy for standalone building energy systems: A case study of a tropical island. Energy Build. 2023, 283, 112827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Mito, M.T.; Ma, X.; Albuflasa, H.; Davies, P.A. Modular operation of renewable energy-driven reverse osmosis using neural networks for wind speed prediction and scheduling. Desalination 2023, 567, 116950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. He, H.; Huang, Y.; Nakadomari, A.; Masrur, H.; Krishnan, N.; Hemeida, A.M.; Mikhaylov, A.; Senjyu, T. Potential and economic viability of green hydrogen production from seawater electrolysis using renewable energy in remote Japanese islands. Renew. Energy 2023, 202, 1436–1447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Petersen, G.; Fries, S.; Mohn, J.; Müller, A. Wind and solar-powered reverse osmosis desalination units—Description of two demonstration projects. Desalination 1979, 31, 501–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Petersen, G.; Fries, S.; Mohn, J.; Müller, A. Wind and solar powered reverse osmosis desalination units—Design, start up, operating experience. Desalination 1981, 39, 125–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Petersen, G.; Fries, S.; Kaiba, K.; Knünz, D. A Wind-powered water desalination plant for small island community at the German coast of the North Sea. Design and working experience. In Proceedings of the Conference: Energy for Rural and Island Communities, Inverness, UK, 22–24 September 1983; pp. 173–180. [Google Scholar]
  129. McGowan, J.G.; Manwell, J.F.; Connors, S.R. Wind/diesel energy systems: Review of design options and recent developments. Sol. Energy 1988, 41, 561–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Plantikow, U. Wind-powered MVC seawater desalination—Operational results. Desalination 1999, 122, 291–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Veza, J.M.; Peate, B.; Castellano, F. Electrodialysis desalination designed for wind energy (on-grid tests). Desalination 2001, 141, 53–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Liu, C.C.K.; Jae-Woo, P.; Migita, R.; Gang, Q. Experiments of a prototype wind-driven reverse osmosis desalination system with feedback control. Desalination 2002, 150, 277–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. LGarcía-Rodríguez, Renewable energy applications in desalination: State of the art. Sol. Energy 2003, 75, 381–393. [CrossRef]
  134. Carta, J.A.; González, J.; Subiela, V. Operational analysis of an innovative wind powered reverse osmosis system installed in the Canary Islands. Sol. Energy 2003, 75, 153–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Carta, J.; González, J.; Gómez, C. Operating results of a wind–diesel system which supplies the full energy needs of an isolated village community in the Canary Islands. Sol. Energy 2003, 74, 53–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Lindemann, J.H. Wind and solar powered seawater desalination applied solutions for the Mediterranean, the Middle East and the Gulf countries. Desalination 2004, 168, 73–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. de la Nuez Pestana, I.; Latorre, F.J.G.; Espinoza, C.A.; Gotor, A.G.; Nuez, I.; García, F.J.; Argudo, C.; Gómez, A. Optimization of RO desalination systems powered by renewable energies. Part I: Wind energy. Desalination 2004, 160, 293–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Veza, J.M.; Penate, B.; Castellano, F. Electrodialysis desalination designed for off-grid wind energy. Desalination 2004, 160, 211–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  139. Subiela, V.J.; Carta, J.A.; González, J. The SDAWES project: Lessons learnt from an innovative project. Desalination 2004, 168, 39–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Duić, N.; da Graça Carvalho, M. Increasing renewable energy sources in island energy supply: Case study Porto Santo. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2004, 8, 383–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  141. Paulsen, K.; Hensel, F. Introduction of a new Energy Recovery System—Optimized for the combination with renewable energy. Desalination 2005, 184, 211–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. Liu, C.C.K.; Xia, W.; Park, J.W. A wind-driven reverse osmosis system for aquaculture wastewater reuse and nutrient recovery. Desalination 2007, 202, 24–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  143. Paulsen, K.; Hensel, F. Design of an autarkic water and energy supply driven by renewable energy using commercially available components. Desalination 2007, 203, 455–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  144. Subiela, V.J.; de la Fuente, J.A.; Piernavieja, G.; Peñate, B. Canary Islands Institute of Technology (ITC) experiences in desalination with renewable energies (1996–2008). Desalin. Water Treat. 2009, 7, 220–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  145. Gude, V.G.; Nirmalakhandan, N.; Deng, S. Renewable and sustainable approaches for desalination. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2010, 14, 2641–2654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Qingfen, M.; Hui, L. Wind energy technologies integrated with desalination systems: Review and state-of-the-art. Desalination 2011, 277, 274–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  147. Peñate, B.; Castellano, F.; Bello, A.; García-Rodríguez, L. Assessment of a stand-alone gradual capacity reverse osmosis desalination plant to adapt to wind power availability: A case study. Energy 2011, 36, 4372–4384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  148. Liu, C.C.K. The Development of a Renewable-Energy-Driven Reverse Osmosis System for Water Desalination and Aquaculture Production. J. Integr. Agric. 2013, 12, 1357–1362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  149. Zhao, B.; Zhang, X.; Li, P.; Wang, K.; Xue, M.; Wang, C. Optimal sizing, operating strategy and operational experience of a stand-alone microgrid on Dongfushan Island. Appl. Energy 2014, 113, 1656–1666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  150. Carta, J.A.; González, J.; Cabrera, P.; Subiela, V.J. Preliminary experimental analysis of a small-scale prototype SWRO desalination plant, designed for continuous adjustment of its energy consumption to the widely varying power generated by a stand-alone wind turbine. Appl. Energy 2015, 137, 222–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  151. Lai, W.; Ma, Q.; Lu, H.; Weng, S.; Fan, J.; Fang, H. Effects of wind intermittence and fluctuation on reverse osmosis desalination process and solution strategies. Desalination 2016, 395, 17–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Smaoui, M.; Krichen, L. Control, energy management and performance evaluation of desalination unit based renewable energies using a graphical user interface. Energy 2016, 114, 1187–1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Cabrera, P.; Lund, H.; Carta, J.A. Smart renewable energy penetration strategies on islands: The case of Gran Canaria. Energy 2018, 162, 421–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  154. Abdelkareem, M.A.; El Haj Assad, M.; Sayed, E.T.; Soudan, B. Recent progress in the use of renewable energy sources to power water desalination plants. Desalination 2018, 435, 97–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  155. Serrano-Tovar, T.; Suárez, B.P.; Musicki, A.; de la Fuente Bencomo, J.A.; Cabello, V.; Giampietro, M. Structuring an integrated water-energy-food nexus assessment of a local wind energy desalination system for irrigation. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 689, 945–957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  156. Ruiz-García, A.; Nuez, I. Long-term intermittent operation of a full-scale BWRO desalination plant. Desalination 2020, 489, 114526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  157. Bundschuh, J.; Kaczmarczyk, M.; Ghaffour, N.; Tomaszewska, B. State-of-the-art of renewable energy sources used in water desalination: Present and future prospects. Desalination 2021, 508, 115035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Miranda, M.S.; Infield, D. A wind-powered seawater reverse-osmosis system without batteries. Desalination 2003, 153, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  159. Thomson, M.; Miranda, M.S.; Infield, D. A small-scale seawater reverse-osmosis system with excellent energy efficiency over a wide operating range. Desalination 2003, 153, 229–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  160. Heijman, S.G.J.; Rabinovitch, E.; Bos, F.; Olthof, N.; van Dijk, J.C. Sustainable seawater desalination: Stand-alone small scale windmill and reverse osmosis system. Desalination 2009, 248, 114–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  161. Setiawan, A.A.; Zhao, Y.; Nayar, C.V. Design, economic analysis and environmental considerations of mini-grid hybrid power system with reverse osmosis desalination plant for remote areas. Renew. Energy 2009, 34, 374–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. Latorre, F.J.G.; Báez, S.O.P.; Gotor, A.G. Energy performance of a reverse osmosis desalination plant operating with variable pressure and flow. Desalination 2015, 366, 146–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  163. Uche, J.; Muzás, A.; Acevedo, L.E.; Usón, S.; Martínez, A.; Bayod, A.A. Experimental tests to validate the simulation model of a Domestic Trigeneration Scheme with hybrid RESs and Desalting Techniques. Renew. Energy 2020, 155, 407–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. Amin, I.; Dai, S.; Day, S.; Ali, M.E.A.; Balah, A.; Shawky, H.; Oterkus, S.; Oterkus, E. Experimental study on the motion response of an integrated floating desalination plant and offshore wind turbine on a non-ship platform. Ocean Eng. 2021, 234, 109275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  165. Ruiz-García, A.; Nuez, I.; Khayet, M. Performance assessment and modeling of an SWRO pilot plant with an energy recovery device under variable operating conditions. Desalination 2023, 555, 116523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  166. Marsh, N.; Howard, J.; Finlayson, F.; Rybar, S. SWRO—The largest plant in British waters. Desalination 1999, 125, 25–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  167. Rezaei, A.; Naserbeagi, A.; Alahyarizadeh, G.; Aghaei, M. Economic evaluation of Qeshm island MED-desalination plant coupling with different energy sources including fossils and nuclear power plants. Desalination 2017, 422, 101–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  168. Atkinson, S. Containerised SWRO systems address increasing potable water demands in Oman. Membr. Technol. 2018, 2018, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  169. Yim, S.K.; Ahn, W.Y.; Kim, G.T.; Koh, G.W.; Cho, J.; Kim, S.H. Pilot-scale evaluation of an integrated membrane system for domestic wastewater reuse on islands. Desalination 2007, 208, 113–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  170. Kunisada, Y.; Ohta, K.; Kaneda, H.; Hirai, M.; Murayama, Y. Operating experience on RO sea water desalination plant at chigasaki laboratory. Desalination 1981, 39, 413–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  171. Kusakari, K.; Kawamata, F.; Matsumoto, N.; Saeki, H.; Terada, Y. Electrodialysis plant at Hatsushima. Desalination 1977, 21, 45–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  172. CH2M HILL studies Hong Kong’s first desal project. Membr. Technol. 2003, 2003, 1. [CrossRef]
  173. Operational acceptance ends first phase of Ebeye, Marshall Islands Project. Membr. Technol. 2018, 2018, 4. [CrossRef]
  174. Osmoflo upgrades water treatment plant on Queensland island in Australia. Membr. Technol. 2019, 2019, 2. [CrossRef]
  175. Jamieson, T.; Balzano, S.; Le Lan, C.; Kildea, T.; Ellis, A.V.; Brown, M.H.; Leterme, S.C. Survival of the fittest: Prokaryotic communities within a SWRO desalination plant. Desalination 2021, 514, 115152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Atkinson, S. Singapore’s first large-scale dual-mode desalination plant is now on stream. Membr. Technol. 2020, 2020, 6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  177. Spanhaak, G. The Combined Production of Electricity and Fresh Water on the Island of Texel. In Selected Water Problems in Islands and Coastal Areas; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1979; pp. 437–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  178. Andrews, W.T.; Bergman, R.A. The malta seawater RO facility. Desalination 1986, 60, 135–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  179. Ntavou, E.; Kosmadakis, G.; Manolakos, D.; Papadakis, G.; Papantonis, D. Experimental evaluation of a multi-skid reverse osmosis unit operating at fluctuating power input. Desalination 2016, 398, 77–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  180. Pais, J.A.G.C.R.; Ferreira, L.M.G.A. Performance study of an industrial RO plant for seawater desalination. Desalination 2007, 208, 269–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  181. Buros, O.K. A history of desalting water in the Virgin Islands. Desalination 1984, 50, 87–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  182. Bonnélye, V.; Sanz, M.A.; Francisci, L.; Beltran, F.; Cremer, G.; Colcuera, R.; Laraudogoitia, J. Curacao, Netherlands Antilles: A successful example of boron removal on a seawater desalination plant. Desalination 2007, 205, 200–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  183. Degrémont builds RO plant in Curaçao. Membr. Technol. 2003, 2003, 2. [CrossRef]
  184. Winters, H. Three-year experience of a seawater RO plant operating at a conversion greater than 50% in the Cayman Islands. Desalination 1989, 74, 183–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. Andrews, W.T.; Pergande, W.F.; McTaggart, G.S. Energy performance enhancements of a 950 m3/d seawater reverse osmosis unit in Grand Cayman. Desalination 2001, 135, 195–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  186. Atkinson, S. UF and RO technologies produce drinking water in the USA and Bahamas. Membr. Technol. 2017, 2017, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  187. Pyne, R.D.G.; Howard, J.B. Desalination/Aquifer Storage Recovery (DASR): A cost-effective combination for Corpus Christi, Texas. Desalination 2004, 165, 363–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  188. Karakulski, K.; Gryta, M.; Morawski, A.W. Pilot plant studies on the removal of trihalomethanes by composite reverse osmosis membranes. Desalination 2001, 140, 227–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  189. Hendershaw, W.K.; Lyle, J.D.; Harris, C.G. Indian River Plantation: The evolution, 16-year history and operating experience of the oldest reverse osmosis water treatment plant on Hutchinson Island (FL). Desalination 1995, 102, 225–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  190. Kadaj, R.; McMillan, D.; Losch, J. A low pressure reverse osmosis facility for Marco Island (FL). Desalination 1995, 102, 25–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  191. Avlonitis, S.A. Operational water cost and productivity improvements for small-size RO desalination plants. Desalination 2002, 142, 295–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  192. Manenti, F.; Masi, M.; Santucci, G. Start-up operations of MED desalination plants. Desalination 2013, 329, 57–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Bartels, C.; Cioffi, S.; Rybar, S.; Wilf, M.; Koutsakos, E. Long term experience with membrane performance at the Larnaca desalination plant. Desalination 2008, 221, 92–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  194. Tsiourtis, N.X. Seawater desalination projects. The Cyprus experience. Desalination 2001, 139, 139–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  195. Georghiou, G.; Pashalidis, I. Boron in groundwaters of Nicosia (Cyprus) and its treatment by reverse osmosis. Desalination 2007, 215, 104–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  196. Burashid, K.; Hussain, A.R. Seawater RO plant operation and maintenance experience: Addur desalination plant operation assessment. Desalination 2004, 165, 11–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  197. Duić, N.; Lerer, M.; Carvalho, M.G. Increasing the supply of renewable energy sources in island energy systems. Int. J. Sustain. Energy 2003, 23, 177–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  198. Documentation—H2RES. 2021. Available online: https://h2res.org/users-manual/ (accessed on 22 February 2024).
  199. Milo’s Desalination—ITA Group. 2021. Available online: https://itagroup.gr/en/milo-s-desalination/ (accessed on 26 February 2024).
  200. Information of Cañada del Río (Fuerteventura) Project. 2015. Available online: https://caaf.es/parque-eolico/ (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  201. Information of Agragua (Gran Canaria) Project. 2001. Available online: https://www.idae.es/sites/default/files/documentos/publicaciones_idae/documentos_2161_doc62_pemontanapelada_a2001_a_7076509e.pdf (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  202. Information of Soslaires (Gran Canaria) Project. 2010. Available online: https://www.laprovincia.es/gran-canaria/2010/04/16/finca-autosuficiente-10789090.html (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  203. Information of the Corralejo (Fuerteventura) Project. 2011. Available online: https://www.evwind.com/2011/01/20/eolica-en-canarias-el-parque-eolico-de-corralejo-produjo-el-87-de-la-energia-consumida-por-la-desalinizadora/ (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  204. Information of Gorona del Viento (El Hierro) Project. 2024. Available online: https://www.goronadelviento.es/central-hidroeolica/ (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  205. Marrero, A.; González, J.; Carta, J.A.; Cabrera, P. A New Control Algorithm to Increase the Stability of Wind–Hydro Power Plants in Isolated Systems: El Hierro as a Case Study. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  206. Information of Díaz Rijo (Lanzarote) Project. 2016. Available online: https://www.elchaplon.com/instalados-los-dos-aerogeneradores-de-la-central-de-desalacion-diaz-rijo (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  207. Information of Los Valles (Lanzarote) Project. 2018. Available online: https://consorcioagualanzarote.com/el-parque-eolico-de-los-valles-genero-un-8-mas-de-energia-en-2018/ (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  208. Information of Puerto del Rosario (Fuerteventura) Project. 2019. Available online: https://www.cabildofuer.es/cabildo/el-cabildo-de-fuerteventura-culmina-la-instalacion-de-un-aerogenerador-en-la-desaladora-del-caaf-en-puerto-del-rosario/ (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  209. Conagrican. 2021. Available online: https://conagrican.com/ (accessed on 29 August 2023).
  210. Information of Conagrican (Gran Canaria) Project. 2021. Available online: https://www.canarias7.es/economia/conagrican-instala-parque-20210324131016-nt.html (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  211. González, J.; Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A. Wind Energy Powered Desalination Systems. In Desalination Water from Water, 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2019; pp. 567–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  212. Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A. Computational Intelligence in the Desalination Industry. In Computational Intelligence and Optimization Methods for Control Engineering; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; pp. 105–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  213. Tzen, E.; Rossis, K.; González, J.; Cabrera, P.; Peñate, B.; Subiela, V. Wind technology design and reverse osmosis systems for off-grid and grid-connected applications. In Renewable Energy Technologies for Water Desalination; CRC Press: London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  214. NEWSLETTER No24 DESAL+ LIVING LAB—SEPTEMBER. 2023. Available online: https://www.desalinationlab.com/desal-living-lab-newsletters/ (accessed on 28 February 2024).
  215. Velázquez-Medina, S.; Santana-Sarmiento, F. Evaluation method of marine spaces for the planning and exploitation of offshore wind farms in isolated territories. A two-island case study. Ocean Coast. Manag. 2023, 239, 106603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  216. Schallenberg-Rodríguez, J.; García Montesdeoca, N. Spatial planning to estimate the offshore wind energy potential in coastal regions and islands. Practical case: The Canary Islands. Energy 2018, 143, 91–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  217. Greenalia Avanza en el Desarrollo de Gofio. 2021. Available online: https://greenalia.es/noticia/greenalia-avanza-en-el-desarrollo-de-gofio-el-primer-parque-eolico-marino-flotante-de-espana-tras-obtener-el-permiso-aeronautico-por-parte-de-aesa/ (accessed on 1 July 2023).
  218. Proyecto Floating Offshore Wind Canarias (FOWCA) Documento Inicial de Proyecto. 2022. Available online: www.equinor.com (accessed on 1 July 2023).
  219. Beiter, P.; Musial, W.; Duffy, P.; Cooperman, A.; Shields, M.; Heimiller, D.; Optis, M. The Cost of Floating Offshore Wind Energy in California between 2019 and 2032; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO, USA, 2020.
Jmse 12 00464 g001
Figure 1. Search procedure followed in this study. Source: adapted from [29], with permission from Elsevier, 2024.
Figure 1. Search procedure followed in this study. Source: adapted from [29], with permission from Elsevier, 2024.
Jmse 12 00464 g001
Jmse 12 00464 g002
Figure 2. Classification of wind-powered desalination systems. Source: adapted from [30], with permission from Wiley, 2024.
Figure 2. Classification of wind-powered desalination systems. Source: adapted from [30], with permission from Wiley, 2024.
Jmse 12 00464 g002
Jmse 12 00464 g003
Figure 3. Numbers and percentages of studies by subcategory.
Figure 3. Numbers and percentages of studies by subcategory.
Jmse 12 00464 g003
Jmse 12 00464 g004
Figure 4. Evolution of the numbers of studies from 1979 to 2023 by year of publication and subcategory: (a) in absolute numbers and (b) in percentages.
Figure 4. Evolution of the numbers of studies from 1979 to 2023 by year of publication and subcategory: (a) in absolute numbers and (b) in percentages.
Jmse 12 00464 g004
Jmse 12 00464 g005
Figure 5. Map of the location of island-based wind-powered desalination projects that are or have been in operation.
Figure 5. Map of the location of island-based wind-powered desalination projects that are or have been in operation.
Jmse 12 00464 g005
Jmse 12 00464 g006
Figure 6. Map of the location of theoretical island-based wind-desalination studies/simulations.
Figure 6. Map of the location of theoretical island-based wind-desalination studies/simulations.
Jmse 12 00464 g006
Jmse 12 00464 g007
Figure 7. Map of potential island locations for future wind-powered desalination projects. 1.- Jersey island, United Kingdom [166]; 2.-Texel island, the Netherlands [167]; 3.-Swinoujscie islands, Poland [168]; 4.-Aegean islands, Greece [169,170]; 5.-Cyprus [171,172,173]; 6.-Bahrain; Qeshm island, Iran; Masirah island, Oman [174,175,176]; 7.-Jeju island, South Korea [177]; 8.-Chigasaki, Hatsushima, Japan [178,179]; 9.-Hong Kong, China [180]; 10.-Marshall islands [181]; 11.-Hamilton island, Australia [182]; 12.-Kangaroo island, Australia [183]; 13.-Singapur [184]; 14.-Malta [185]; 15.-Balearic islands, Spain [186]; 16.-Porto Santo, Madeira, Portugal [187]; 17.-Virgin islands [188]; 18.-Curaçao [189,190]; 19.-Cayman islands, United Kingdom [191,192]; 20.-Turks and Caicos islands and Bahamas islands [8,193]; 21.-Padre and Mustang islands, Texas, USA [194]; 22.-Hutchinson and Marco islands, Florida, USA [195,196].
Figure 7. Map of potential island locations for future wind-powered desalination projects. 1.- Jersey island, United Kingdom [166]; 2.-Texel island, the Netherlands [167]; 3.-Swinoujscie islands, Poland [168]; 4.-Aegean islands, Greece [169,170]; 5.-Cyprus [171,172,173]; 6.-Bahrain; Qeshm island, Iran; Masirah island, Oman [174,175,176]; 7.-Jeju island, South Korea [177]; 8.-Chigasaki, Hatsushima, Japan [178,179]; 9.-Hong Kong, China [180]; 10.-Marshall islands [181]; 11.-Hamilton island, Australia [182]; 12.-Kangaroo island, Australia [183]; 13.-Singapur [184]; 14.-Malta [185]; 15.-Balearic islands, Spain [186]; 16.-Porto Santo, Madeira, Portugal [187]; 17.-Virgin islands [188]; 18.-Curaçao [189,190]; 19.-Cayman islands, United Kingdom [191,192]; 20.-Turks and Caicos islands and Bahamas islands [8,193]; 21.-Padre and Mustang islands, Texas, USA [194]; 22.-Hutchinson and Marco islands, Florida, USA [195,196].
Jmse 12 00464 g007
Table 1. Identification and classification of the journals considered in this study.
Table 1. Identification and classification of the journals considered in this study.
PublisherJournalsPublisher’s Full-Text Search Facility
ElsevierEnergy, Energy Conversion and Management, Solar Energy, Renewable Energy, Energy for Sustainable Development, Applied Energy, Desalination, Filtration and Separation, Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, Energy Reports, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, Journal of Energy Storage, Science of The Total Environment, Water Science and Engineeringhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
Wiley Interdisciplinary ReviewsEnergy and Environment, Energy Researchhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/search/advanced (accessed on 28 February 2024)
MDPIEnergies, Sustainability, Processes, Applied Sciences, Waterhttps://www.mdpi.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
SpringerSolar Desalination for the 21st Century, International Journal of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Renewable Energy Based Solutions, Alternative Energy Sources and Technologieshttps://link.springer.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
DeswaterDesalination and Water Treatmenthttps://www.deswater.com/home.php (accessed on 28 February 2024)
WSEASWSEAS Transactions on Environment and Developmenthttps://wseas.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
Taylor FrancisInternational Journal of Sustainable Energy, Desalination and Water Treatmenthttp://www.tandfonline.com (accessed on 28 February 2024)
IEEEIEEE Accesshttps://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/advanced (accessed on 28 February 2024)
CETCET Journalhttps://www.cetjournal.it/index.php/cet (accessed on 28 February 2024)
IOP ScienceEarth and Environmental Sciencehttps://iopscience.iop.org/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
EmeraldJournal of Engineering, Design and Technologyhttps://www.emerald.com/insight/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
AIP PublishingJournal of Renewable and Sustainable Energyhttps://aip.scitation.org/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
Korea ScienceJournal of Electrical Engineering and Technologyhttp://koreascience.or.kr/main.page (accessed on 28 February 2024)
Scientific.netAdvanced Materials Research, Applied Mechanics and Materialshttps://www.scientific.net/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
HindawiComputational Science in Smart Grids and Energy Systemshttps://www.hindawi.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
BiomedcentralEnergy, Sustainability and Societyhttps://energsustainsoc.biomedcentral.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
IWA PublishingWater Supplyhttps://iwaponline.com/ (accessed on 28 February 2024)
Table 2. Selected theoretical studies.
Table 2. Selected theoretical studies.
YearOn-GridOff-Grid
100%
Connected to the Grid		Wind Power Used to Power the Desalination PlantWithout Energy Storage SystemWith Energy Storage SystemHybrid System
1999 [31] [32,33]
2000 [34,35]
2001[36][37,38,39,40] [41]
2002 [42,43] [42,44,45]
2003 [46][47] [48]
2004[17][49,50] [51]
2005 [52][53]
2006 [54][55,56]
2007[57,58][57][57][57,59,60][57]
2008 [61]
2009 [62,63]
2010 [64,65]
2011[66][67] [68,69]
2012[70,71,72][73][74]
2013
2014
2015[75] [76][76,77]
2016[78,79][80] [81,82,83]
2017
2018[84,85][86] [87,88,89]
2019[90][91] [92,93,94,95]
2020 [96] [12,97,98,99,100]
2021 [23,101,102][25,103,104] [26,105,106]
2022[107,108,109,110,111,112][108,113][108][108][108,113,114,115,116]
2023[117,118,119,120,121,122,123][119,120][119,120,124][119,120][119,120,125]
Table 3. Main software and tools applied in the different theoretical studies.
Table 3. Main software and tools applied in the different theoretical studies.
Software/ToolReferences
HOMER[63,73,87,89,92,94,97,112]
ROSA and/or TorayDS2[87,91]
EnergyPlan[26]
TIMES, TRNSYS, TRNOPT and/or GenOPT[67,71,72,76,98,122]
MATLAB[12,72,77,82,88,100,102,103,105,109,124]
H2RES[66,75,78]
Vensim[58]
Custom tool[17,25,31,32,34,37,39,40,41,43,44,45,46,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,59,60,62,64,65,68,69,79,80,81,83,84,85,86,90,91,95,96,98,99,101,104,106,107,110,111,113,114,116,117,118,121,123,125]
Not specified[23,33,35,36,38,42,47,61,70,74,93,108,115,119,120]
Table 4. Selected studies which consider projects that are or have been in operation.
Table 4. Selected studies which consider projects that are or have been in operation.
YearOn-GridOff-Grid
100%
Connected to the Grid		Wind Power Used to Power the
Desalination Plant		Without
Energy Storage System		With Energy Storage
System		Hybrid
System
1979 [126]
1981 [127]
1983 [128]
1988 [129]
1999 [130]
2000
2001[131] [131]
2002 [132]
2003 [133] [134][133,135]
2004[136] [13,137,138,139][140]
2005 [141]
2006
2007 [142][143]
2008
2009 [144]
2010 [145]
2011[146][146][146,147][146][146]
2012
2013 [148]
2014[149]
2015 [150]
2016 [151][151,152]
2017 [27]
2018[14,153,154][14,154][14,28,154][14,28,154][14,154]
2019 [155]
2020 [156]
2021 [157][157][157]
Table 5. Selected studies which consider experimental projects.
Table 5. Selected studies which consider experimental projects.
YearOn-GridOff-Grid
100%
Connected to the Grid		Wind Power Used to Power the
Desalination Plant		Without
Energy Storage
System		With Energy Storage
System		Hybrid
System
2003 [158,159]
2009 [160] [161]
2015 [162]
2020 [163]
2021 [164]
2023 [165]
Table 6. Commercial wind-driven desalination systems currently used by inhabitants of some islands.
Table 6. Commercial wind-driven desalination systems currently used by inhabitants of some islands.
LocationReferenceTypeYear
Cañada del Río, Fuerteventura, Spain[200]100% connected to the grid1994
Rügen Island, Germany[130]Wind power used to power the desalination plant/standalone1999
Agragua, Gran Canaria, Spain[201]Wind power used to power the desalination plant2001
Soslaires, Gran Canaria, Spain[91,202]Wind power used to power the desalination plant2002
Milos Island, Greece[199]100% connected to the grid2007
Corralejo, Fuerteventura, Spain[203]Wind power used to power the desalination plant2010
Gorona del Viento, El Hierro, Spain[204,205]100% connected to the grid2014
Díaz Rijo, Lanzarote, Spain[206]Wind power used to power the desalination plant2016
Los Valles, Lanzarote, Spain[207]100% connected to the grid2018
Puerto del Rosario, Fuerteventura, Spain[208]Wind power used to power the desalination plant2019
Conagrican, Gran Canaria, Spain[209,210]Wind power used to power the desalination plant2021
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Matos, C.; Cabrera, P.; Carta, J.A.; Melián-Martel, N. Wind-Powered Desalination on Islands: A Review of Energy–Water Pathways. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 464. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030464

AMA Style

Matos C, Cabrera P, Carta JA, Melián-Martel N. Wind-Powered Desalination on Islands: A Review of Energy–Water Pathways. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2024; 12(3):464. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030464

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matos, Carlos, Pedro Cabrera, José A. Carta, and Noemi Melián-Martel. 2024. "Wind-Powered Desalination on Islands: A Review of Energy–Water Pathways" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 12, no. 3: 464. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12030464

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop