Are Rural Residents Willing to Pay for Sanitation Improvements? Evidence from China’s Toilet Revolution

Abstract

The “Rural Toilet Revolution” is a pivotal initiative aimed at improving living conditions and health standards in rural China. Utilizing data from 683 questionnaire responses from rural residents across China, this study constructs a multi-stakeholder collaborative governance system and delves into the current state of rural toilets, assesses the average willingness of rural residents to invest in toilet upgrades, and identifies key factors influencing their financial commitment to such renovations. The findings reveal that the average willingness to pay for the modernization of sanitation facilities is CNY 791 (approx. USD 110), constituting approximately 26.37% of the actual renovation costs, and the ratio of government and residents’ contributions can be determined as 3:1. Moreover, a positive correlation was observed between the frequency of toilet cleaning and the propensity to invest in upgrades, highlighting a heightened awareness of hygiene risks among those prioritizing sanitation. Conversely, satisfaction with existing toilets inversely affected the willingness to pay for improvements, indicating that contentment with current toilets diminishes the likelihood of participation in renovation initiatives. Additionally, previous engagement in toilet renovation programs emerged as a significant predictor of continued willingness to contribute financially to the “Toilet Revolution”, underscoring the positive impact of prior renovation experiences.

1. Introduction

The global challenge of unimproved sanitation poses significant health, environmental, and economic concerns. Approximately 3.6 billion individuals worldwide, 92% residing in rural locales, lack access to safely managed sanitation services, with 494 million engaging in open defecation [1]. This sanitation crisis heightens susceptibility to a multitude of diseases [2,3,4,5,6], exacerbates environmental pollution [7,8], and detrimentally affects socio-economic conditions [9]. Addressing these issues necessitates the deployment of extensive sanitation infrastructure enhancements [10,11,12].

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim for universal access to water and sanitation by 2030, aspiring to eliminate open defecation and ensure equitable and adequate sanitation and hygiene for everyone. To achieve this objective, the expansion of sanitation coverage needs to quadruple [13]. However, in estimates of safely managed sanitation services across 120 countries, representing 81% of the global population, only 8 countries had achieved universal coverage by 2020, and only 8 additional countries are projected to achieve this coverage by 2030 [1]. This situation illustrates the challenges and delays in meeting key sustainable development targets, particularly those related to sanitation and hygiene. These delays in progress on sanitation access highlight broader issues in the global pursuit of sustainable development, which not only encompasses ecological concerns but also includes economic, social, and political dimensions. Despite some advancements, significant global progress in these interconnected areas of sustainable development is still insufficient [14,15].

Regional disparities further highlight the inequities in sanitation coverage. As calculated in this paper, both the proportion of basic sanitation and safely managed sanitation services in emerging and developing countries are significantly lower than those in developed countries (Figure 1). Until 2022, compared to the nearly nonexistent open defecation rate in developed countries, the rate of open defecation in rural areas of emerging and developing countries is still 11.82% (Figure 1f). As of 2020, in the 27 European Union countries, only 1.5% of the population lacked access to bathtubs, showers, and indoor flush toilets (Eurostat, 2022 [16]). In contrast, in Sub-Saharan Africa, 27% of the rural population still practiced open defecation as of 2020 [1]. China has been actively addressing sanitation issues since launching the “Toilet Revolution” in 2015. A significant initiative to remodel rural household toilets commenced in 2018, leading to a national rural sanitation toilet coverage rate of 73% by 2022. Research indicates that China is on track to achieve universal coverage of safely managed sanitation services by 2030 [1].

Government investment and resident participation are both crucial factors in promoting the construction and improvement of sanitation facilities [17]. As rural sanitation toilets are a focal point of sanitation infrastructure development, a thorough understanding of the needs and willingness of rural households to upgrade toilets, along with an analysis of the main influencing factors, is beneficial for advancing the development goal of universal access to sanitation facilities. This study examines Chinese rural residents’ viewpoints regarding toilet renovations and their financial willingness to support these upgrades. This research aims to achieve multiple objectives. Initially, it aims to examine the road ahead for the governance model of the Toilet Revolution. Next, it identifies the factors that affect rural residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for sanitary toilets and creates a quantitative method to evaluate this willingness. Subsequently, it provides practical suggestions for the worldwide execution of the Toilet Revolution. Innovations: One is to establish a collaborative governance system for multiple stakeholders in the Toilet Revolution, clarifying the four-party collaborative governance framework among the government, rural residents, social enterprises, and social organizations. Two is to clarify the cost-sharing mechanism of the Toilet Revolution and ascertain the cost proportion that rural residents are willing to contribute to the toilet reform. Third is to establish a basis for dialog between the government and other stakeholders for the advancement of the Toilet Revolution.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Rural Living Environments

Rural living environments, especially sanitation facilities, are crucial in shaping the quality of life and health outcomes in rural communities. The environment in which humans live impacts their subjective well-being [18], and satisfaction with physical infrastructure in rural households enhances happiness [19]. Environmental sanitation is vital for health. The absence of adequate sanitation facilities poses health risks and can impede socio-economic development and perpetuate cycles of poverty and disease [20]. The concept of sustainable development emphasizes the integration of environmental health, economic viability, and social equity [21]. In this context, modern sanitation facilities are not merely conveniences but fundamental components in driving comprehensive development in rural areas.

2.2. Rural Toilet Revolution

The “Toilet Revolution”, a term coined by the United Nations Children’s Fund to spotlight the importance of sanitary toilets in developing countries, has the primary goal of enhancing rural sanitation facilities. Since China initiated the Toilet Revolution in 2015, substantial advancements have been made in rural sanitation infrastructure, significantly improving living conditions for residents [22,23]. Similarly, India’s Swachh Bharat Mission Gramin (SBM-G), launched in 2014, specifically targeted the elimination of open defecation practices in rural areas, promoting overall sanitation improvement [24]. Bangladesh introduced the Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) initiative, encouraging rural households to construct toilets for environmental enhancement. This initiative subsequently expanded to other countries, typically increasing toilet coverage by approximately 6–12%, with some cases achieving up to 30% [25].

Scholarly investigations have predominantly focused on the opportunities of its widespread adoption [26], identified prevailing challenges [27,28], and explored its ramifications for economic and health outcomes [29,30,31]. Rural toilet renovation contributes to economic, health, and social benefits, enhancing public health conditions, substantially reducing medical expenses for farmers, and enhancing their per capita disposable income to promote rural revitalization [32]. However, due to the generally limited economic conditions of rural households and the common practice of locating toilets adjacent to pigsties to use human feces for feeding pigs, little priority has been placed on improving rural sanitation facilities by rural households [33].

2.3. Willingness to Pay

Understanding household demand and readiness to invest in upgrading sanitary facilities is crucial for the targeted promotion of toilet renovations in rural areas [34]. Among the various approaches for gauging willingness to finance environmental amenities, the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) is the most suitable technique for assessing financial commitment [35,36]. This methodology has been effectively employed by researchers such as Kanayo et al. [37] and Schuhmann et al. [38] to quantify the financial willingness of communities to pay for essential services such as regional water supply and ecosystem protection. The willingness to pay (WTP), as outlined by the contingent valuation approach, is influenced by a range of non-economic factors [39], with variables such as education level, geographic location, and perceptions of sanitation and hygiene significantly shaping payment inclinations [40,41,42].

In summary, the Toilet Revolution as a crucial aspect of rural residential environmental governance, is directly linked to people’s health and subjective well-being. Advancing the Toilet Revolution not only improves family living environments but also promotes sustainable rural development. Despite the extensive literature on the significance and impacts of the Toilet Revolution, there is limited exploration of the governance patterns of toilet reforms, and a significant gap in examining rural residents’ perceptions of the toilet implementation process, as well as a lack of precise, quantitative measures of their WTP for such renovations. CVM, as an important approach for assessing willingness to pay for environmental goods and services, provides valuable insights into this study on rural residents’ WTP for toilet upgrades.

3. Theory

The governance mechanisms of the Toilet Revolution are key to the project’s development. Collaborative governance theory, as an emerging theory, is increasingly applied in public management [43], environmental governance [44,45,46], and tourism development [47]. This theory examines the synergistic interactions between agricultural modernization and sustainable rural development [48].

This paper proposes collaborative governance for rural toilet reform involving the government, rural residents, social enterprises, and social organizations. The existing toilet reform governance primarily focuses on the government and rural households, and this paper argues that it is worthwhile to incorporate social enterprises and social organizations into the governance system. The multi-stakeholder collaborative governance system of the Toilet Revolution, depicted in Figure 2, shows the government leading, rural residents driving, social enterprises practicing, and social organizations complementing. Each of the four parties are engaged in making decisions, implementing, financing, and monitoring, and establishing cooperation, supervision, and equilibrium relationships. This paper focuses on finance. Currently, fundraising depends on both the government and rural residents. However, the uncertainty of rural residents’ willingness to pay for toilet renovation prevents the government from setting a reasonable cost-sharing ratio.

Reasonable cost-sharing mechanisms facilitate enhancing the effectiveness of the reform. First, the Toilet Revolution has primarily been implemented in developing countries, where financing is challenging. Implementing cost-sharing can effectively alleviate pressure on governmental governance. Second, with a specific amount of government funding, while rural residents and other stakeholders cover part of the costs, the government can allocate these subsidies to more districts, thus benefiting more rural residents. Third, in the process of collaborative governance, multi-stakeholder communication is conducive to strengthening interaction, both to better understand the demands of rural residents and to increase trust in the government among rural households. Finally, the financial contributions of rural residents and others has provided greater incentive to renovate and maintain sanitary latrines and strengthened the supervision to prevent “cutting corners” in government projects.

So how much are rural residents willing to pay for the Toilet Revolution? What kind of cost-sharing mechanism can the government establish in the implementation of the project? Clarifying rural residents’ willingness to pay will enable government organizations to better grasp rural residents’ needs and negotiate with them in the toilet reform project, and to more accurately determine the financial support that government departments require, as well as the extent of rural residents’ motivation. Therefore, this paper suggests building a synergistic governance system for the toilet reform and clarifying the rural residents’ willingness to pay, aiming to encourage the government to develop reasonable subsidy policies. Additionally, social enterprises and social organizations are encouraged to participate in the project to alleviate the pressure on both the government and the rural residents, and to establish a positive image that facilitates the development of enterprises in rural areas.

4. Material and Methods

China, with its vast rural population of 490 million, exemplifies the significant challenge that many developing countries face in providing adequate sanitation facilities due to limited resources. Since initiating the Toilet Revolution in 2015, the Chinese government has significantly enhanced the availability of rural sanitation facilities through financial subsidies, technological advancements, and other multidimensional interventions. This government-led, multi-stakeholder collaborative governance model serves as a reference for other developing countries striving to overcome bottlenecks in enhancing sanitation facilities. This paper contributes to the refinement of these programs by investigating the WTP for rural household toilet renovations in China.

4.1. Research Design

The methodology employed in this study to assess rural residents’ WTP for toilet renovations uses CVM, a widely recognized technique for valuing non-market goods. The process is designed to simulate a market scenario for toilet upgrades, thereby capturing rural households’ perceived value and financial commitment toward improving their sanitation facilities. The methodology is as follows: First, we described the concept of the Toilet Revolution and its benefits to the respondents and introduced the relevant policies and the initial amount of money required for the sanitary toilet upgrade. The respondents were then queried if they would pay the initial amount for this household toilet renovation. If the respondents replied “yes” to the given initial amount, they were further asked if they were still willing to upgrade their toilet for a higher, randomized amount within a range. Subsequently, we conducted interviews in Beijing to understand the cost of sanitary toilet renovation per household. Considering the income level of rural households and the multi-faceted demand for sanitary toilets and their supporting infrastructures, this study establishes the minimum cost of sanitary toilet renovation at CNY 3000 (CNY 1 ≈ USD 0.14) per household. Since the government offers to subsidize 90% of the cost, the initial amount of this research was established at CNY 300, and the survey range of WTP was established at CNY 300–800. If respondents indicated WTP for household toilet renovation at the initial amount of CNY 300, they were then asked whether they would be willing to pay a randomized price between CNY 300 and 800. Only respondents willing to pay for household toilet renovation at the initial price (CNY 300) were included in the sample. Random price is the independent variable for this study and the willingness to renovate their toilets at a random price is the dependent variable.

4.2. Data Source

Data for this study were collected through questionnaires administered from April to August 2023 across various locations, including Beijing and Liaoning (Figure 3). The study primarily employed a mixed-methods approach of face-to-face household interviews and online surveys to fully capture the diversity and complexity of the data. Face-to-face interviews enabled an in-depth exploration of respondents’ perceptions and attitudes, whereas online surveys expanded the scope and convenience of data collection. To encourage greater participation from residents, each respondent who completed the survey was compensated with CNY 10, a measure that significantly enhanced participation rates and ensured data quality. Out of 780 distributed questionnaires, 683 were deemed valid after excluding responses with missing or incorrect information, yielding an effective response rate of 87.6%. Specifically, valid responses were received from 231 participants in Beijing and 452 in Liaoning, respectively. Beijing and Liaoning, both located in the north, experience cold winters that create a high and urgent demand for the upgrading and renovation of rural sanitation facilities. Compared to other provinces in the east, there is more room for improvement in the prevalence of rural sanitation facilities in these areas. Researching the WTP for sanitation upgrades among rural residents in these regions can yield a deep analysis of the issues faced during the renovation process, including the residents’ willingness to renovate and their willingness to invest funds. These research findings can offer valuable experiential references for other provinces and cities across the north and throughout the country, enabling them to tailor sanitation improvement plans and promote the ongoing deepening of the Toilet Revolution. The survey consisted of three sections: demographic information of the respondents and their households; usage frequency and perceptions toward sanitary toilets; and their WTP for toilet renovations.

Table 1. Basic characteristics of survey respondents.

Variable	Definition	Number of People	Proportion
Sex	Men	309	45.24
	Women	374	54.76
Age	20–29	124	18.16
	30–39	112	16.40
	40–49	187	27.38
	50–59	187	27.38
	Above 60	73	10.69
Education (Educational level)	Below Primary School	21	3.07
	Primary School	54	7.91
	Junior High School	153	22.40
	High School/ Middle School/ Vocational High School	155	22.69
	University/College	281	41.14
	Postgraduate and Above	19	2.78
Income (Monthly household income)	<10,000	526	77.01
	10,000–19,999	120	17.57
	≥20,000	37	5.42

provides a summary of the respondents’ demographic characteristics. In terms of sex distribution, women slightly outnumbered men in the study sample, reflecting the demographic reality of Liaoning Province, where women constitute a slightly larger proportion of the population. Although men marginally outnumber women in Beijing, the observed sex ratio is reasonable given that respondents from Liaoning comprise a larger share of the sample. Regarding age structure, respondents aged 40–49 and 50–59 each accounted for 27.38%, and middle-aged and elderly participants (aged 40 and above) represented a total of 65.54%. This aligns with the prevalent aging phenomenon in rural China. In terms of educational attainment, the majority (86.24%) had education levels ranging from junior high school to university or college school, while more than one-tenth reported education levels at or below primary school, demonstrating the sample’s educational diversity. Concerning monthly household income, 77.01% of households earned less than CNY 10,000 per month, which is consistent with the generally lower income levels in rural areas. Taken together, these demographic characteristics confirm that the study sample is suitably representative, accurately reflecting the actual conditions of the target population and providing robust data support for the research.

In our survey, 476 participants (69.7%) expressed willingness to invest CNY 300 in upgrading their sanitation facilities, thereby demonstrating substantial support for the Toilet Revolution initiative at the baseline cost. For 476 respondents willing to improve their toilet, the random prices asked are CNY 347, 461, 684, 710, and 782, respectively, corresponding to 90.10%, 84.85%, 58.65%, 53.93%, 56.63%, and 69.54% of the willingness to pay. It reveals a discernible decline in the propensity to engage in the renovation project as the financial requirements escalated.

4.3. Variable Selection

This study identifies five principal dimensions influencing consumers’ WTP for toilet renovations, underscoring the multi-faceted nature of this economic behavior. The variables, detailed in

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

Variable	Define	Mean	Standard Deviation	Expected Direction of Effect
Bid	Random price	588.06	164.60	-
Sex	1 = Men, 0 = Women	0.46	0.50	+
Age	Age	42.60	12.64	+
age 1	1 = Age 20–29, 0 = Other
age 2	1 = Age 30–39, 0 = Other
age 3	1 = Age 40–49, 0 = Other
age 4	1 = Age 50–59, 0 = Other
Education	Educational level, 1 = below primary school, 2 = primary school, 3 = junior high school, 4 = high school/middle school/vocational high school, 5 = university/college, 6 = postgraduate and above	4.18	1.06	+
Income	Monthly household income (CNY one thousand)	12.43	92.37	+
income 1	1 = Monthly household income less than CNY 10,000, 0 = Other
income 2	1 = Monthly household income is 10,000–19,999 CNY, 0 = Other
House	Number of people in the household	4.00	1.40	+
Distance	Distance of the household from the city/district center (km)	3.23	1.73	-
Member	Whether the household is the main purchasing member of household necessities, 1 = Yes, 0 = No	0.70	0.46	+
Purchase	Frequency of household purchasing furniture, 1 = Basically not purchase, 2 = Occasionally purchase, 3 = Generally purchase, 4 = Often purchase, 5 = Always purchase	2.28	0.93	+
Familiarity	Knowledge of surrounding environmental sanitation, 1 = Never, 2 = Less, 3 = General, 4 = More, 5 = Very	3.14	1.01	+
Clean	Frequency of toilet cleaning, 1 = Not clean, 2 = Clean once a month, 3 = Clean weekly, 4 = Clean daily	3.26	0.90	+
Health	Perceived relationship between sanitary toilets and health, 1 = Very relevant, 2 = More relevant, 3 = General, 4 = Less relevant, 5 = Not relevant	1.57	0.84	-
Satisfaction	Satisfaction with existing toilet, 1 = Very dissatisfied, 2 = Less satisfied, 3 = General, 4 = More satisfied, 5 = Very satisfied	3.44	1.06	-
Unsanitary	Receptiveness to non-sanitary toilets, 1 = Not acceptable, 2 = Less acceptable, 3 = General, 4 = More acceptable, 5 = Completely acceptable	2.23	1.11	-
Relatives	Proportion of relatives and neighbors using sanitary toilets, 1 = 0–20%, 2 = 21–40%, 3 = 41–60%, 4 = 61–80%, 5 = 81–100%	2.91	1.53	+
Reformation	Weather have participated in a toilet renovation, 1 = Yes, 0 = No	0.18	0.39	+

, relate to the responses of 476 individuals inclined to invest CNY 300 in such upgrades, encompassing various factors from personal attributes to household characteristics and behavioral inclinations.

Individual Characteristics: This domain includes personal attributes—sex, age, and educational level—as determinants of WTP [49,50,51]. This demonstrates the demographic profile’s influence on economic decisions related to sanitation improvements.

Household Characteristics: This section evaluates the impact of household income, size, and urban proximity on WTP. The analysis leans on average monthly household income and the number of household members as critical metrics [52,53]. Moreover, the geographical distance of the household from city/district centers is acknowledged as a significant factor [54].

Consumption Habits: Exploring consumption patterns reveals the ways in which personal and familial purchasing preferences and frequencies influence WTP, particularly focusing on individuals’ roles in buying decisions and their furniture purchasing frequency [55].

Risk Perception: This shows how environmental and health awareness informs individuals’ willingness to adopt a detailed approach to gauge environmental risk perception through knowledge of surrounding environmental sanitation and cleaning practices [31,56]. Additionally, it assesses health perception through the lens of the perceived relationship between sanitary toilets and health [57].

Toilet Usage: Finally, the study examines the impact of social dynamics and personal experiences on WTP, evaluating satisfaction with existing toilets, receptiveness to non-sanitary toilets, the proportion of relatives and neighbors using sanitary toilets, and previous renovation engagements [58,59,60,61].

4.4. Modeling

The modeling process is shown in Figure 4. It is further assumed that the utility function is linear. In Equation (1), $Y=1$ denotes the rural resident choosing to renovate a sanitary toilet, $U_{Y=1}$ denotes the utility of a rural resident choosing to renovate a sanitary toilet, $Z$ denotes other factors affecting the rural resident’s utility including individual and household characteristics, $Bid$ denotes the random price chosen in the survey question, ${\alpha }_1$ denotes the intercept term, ${\beta }_1$ denotes coefficients before other factor terms, ${\lambda }_1$ denotes coefficient before the random price term, and ${\epsilon }_1$ denotes the random error term. In Equation (2), $Y=0$ denotes the rural resident choosing not to renovate a sanitary toilet, $U_{Y=0}$ denotes the utility of a rural resident choosing not to renovate a sanitary toilet, ${\alpha }_0$ denotes the intercept term, ${\beta }_0$ denotes coefficients before other factor terms, and ${\epsilon }_0$ denotes the random error term. In Equation (3), $U^{*}=U_{Y=1}-U_{Y=0}$ denotes the utility difference between choosing to renovate a sanitary toilet and not choosing to renovate a sanitary toilet, ${\alpha }^{*}={\alpha }_1-{\alpha }_0$ denotes the intercept term, ${\beta }^{*}={\beta }_1-{\beta }_0$ denotes coefficients before other factor terms, ${\lambda }^{*}={\lambda }_1$ denotes the coefficient before the random price term, and ${\epsilon }^{*}={\epsilon }_1-{\epsilon }_0$ denotes the random error term. If the choice is to participate in sanitary toilet renovation, the utility resulting from the rural resident’s choice can be expressed as follows:

$$U_{Y=1}={\alpha }_1+{\beta }_{1}Z+{\lambda }_{1}Bid+{\epsilon }_1$$

(1)

If the rural resident’s choice is not to participate, the utility resulting from the rural resident’s choice can be expressed as follows:

$$U_{Y=0}={\alpha }_0+{\beta }_{0}Z+{\epsilon }_0$$

(2)

When $U_{Y=1}\ge U_{Y=0}$, the rural resident will choose to have sanitary toilet renovation. Subtracte the above two equations to obtain the following:

$$U^{*}={\alpha }^{*}+{\beta }^{*}Z+{\lambda }^{*}Bid+{\epsilon }^{*}$$

(3)

Then, the probability that the rural resident chooses to have sanitary toilet renovation ($Y=1$) is as follows:

$$P(Y=1)=P(U^{*}>0)=P[{\epsilon }^{*}>-({\alpha }^{*}+{\beta }^{*}Z+{\lambda }^{*}Bid)]$$

(4)

We assume that ${\epsilon }^{*}$ obeys the logistic distribution. After further transformation, a linear logit model can be presented as follows:

$$\ln [{\displaystyle \frac{P(Y=1)}{1-P(Y=1)}}]={\alpha }^{*}+{\beta }^{*}Z+{\lambda }^{*}bid$$

(5)

The logit model can calculate the average WTP of rural residents.

$$E(WTP)=E(Bid)=-{\displaystyle \frac{{\alpha }^{*}+{\beta }^{*}E(Z)}{{\lambda }^{*}}}$$

(6)

Thus, the WTP for toilet renovation and each factor’s direction and degree of effect on the WTP is obtained.

5. Results

5.1. Usage of Rural Toilets

The existing household toilet usage of the 683 respondents of the survey is shown in Figure 5. Figure 5a shows the years that respondents have been using their household toilets, with 55.9% using them for 10 years and above. Figure 5b depicts the respondents’ perception of household toilets emitting odors, with approximately half of the respondents considering them smelly. Figure 5c exhibits that 63% of the respondents agreed that existing toilet usage is problematic. Figure 5d shows the specific problems. Two problems, easy breakage due to low temperatures and high cost of septic tank cleaning, were more frequent, accounting for 12.59% and 11.13% of the respondents, respectively.

5.2. Rural Residents’ Willingness to Renovate Sanitary Toilets

Younger individuals, those with higher levels of education, higher household incomes, and a strong belief in the health benefits of sanitary toilets tend to participate more in toilet renovation projects when the cost is set at CNY 300. This conclusion is supported by statistically significant differences in the mean values for age, education level, monthly household income, and health perception of sanitary toilets, as demonstrated through chi-square tests.

Table 3. Difference in sample means.

Variable	Willing to Pay CNY 300 for Toilet Renovation	Unwilling to Pay CNY 300 for Toilet Renovation	Chi-Square Test
Sex	0.46	0.44	0.0762
Age	42.60	47.04	80.3276 **
Education	4.18	3.57	48.4058 ***
Income	12.43	6.56	62.2321 *
House	4.00	3.91	6.1355
Distance	3.23	3.42	10.5045 **
Member	0.70	0.68	0.1804
Purchase	2.28	2.21	11.0054 **
Familiarity	3.14	3.11	3.3761
Clean	3.26	3.22	2.6801
Health	1.57	1.89	22.9398 ***
Satisfaction	3.44	3.51	3.2460
Unsanitary	2.23	2.47	14.1750 ***
Relatives	2.91	2.78	6.7853
Reformation	0.18	0.22	0.9728

Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

presents the average values of specific variables for two groups: respondents who expressed a willingness to engage for CNY 300 and those who did not. The application of chi-square tests to these differences underscores their statistical significance. This shows a trend where younger individuals, those with higher education levels, higher monthly household incomes, and a stronger acknowledgment of the health implications of sanitary toilets exhibit a higher propensity toward participating in toilet renovations.

Utilizing a logit model with age, education, monthly income, and perceptions of the health implications of sanitary toilets as predictors (

Table 4. Regression analysis results of willingness to pay price of CNY 300 for toilet renovation.

Variable	Model 1		Model 2
	Coefficient	dy/dx	Coefficient	dy/dx
Intercept	0.2557		−0.0193
Age	−0.0087	−0.0017
Age 1			0.6562 *	0.1280 *
Age2			0.1086	0.0212
Age3			0.3718	0.0725
Age4			0.3461	0.0675
Education	0.3355 ***	0.0659 ***	0.2996 ***	0.0584 ***
Income	0.0062	0.0012
Income1			−0.3181	−0.0620
Income2			0.0339	0.0066
Health	−0.2245 **	−0.0441 **	−0.2250 **	−0.0439 **
Number of obs	683		683
Wald chi2(16)	42.34		47.7
Prob > chi2	0.0000		0.0000
Log pseudolikelihood	−395.4366		−393.1451

Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

), we identified a robust positive correlation between educational attainment and willingness to renovate, with a statistically significant impact at the 1% significance level. This suggests that individuals with higher education demonstrate a greater willingness to participate in renovation initiatives. Moreover, perceptions linking sanitary toilets to health outcomes significantly influenced renovation willingness at the 5% significance level, underscoring the importance of enhancing public health promotion regarding sanitary facilities. When examining age and income included as categorical variables, the model further highlighted that individuals aged 20–29 showed a notably higher willingness at the 10% significance level.

5.3. Average Willingness to Pay of Rural Residents for Sanitary Toilet Renovation

In this study, we explored the WTP for toilet renovations among the 476 respondents, presenting the findings in

Table 5. Logit regression model analysis results of willingness to pay for sanitary toilet renovation.

Variable	Model 3		Model 4
	Coefficient	dy/dx	Coefficient	dy/dx
Intercept	1.7797		1.7585
Bid	−0.0056 ***	−0.0009 ***	−0.0057 ***	−0.0009 ***
Sex	0.4002 *	0.0675 *	0.4178 *	0.0687 *
Age	0.0046	0.0008
Age 1			−0.7593	−0.1248
Age 2			−0.0583	−0.0096
Age 3			−0.5295	−0.0870
Age 4			−0.5342	−0.0878
Education	0.2321 *	0.0392 *	0.2649 *	0.0435 *
Income	0.0070	0.0012
Income 1			0.7497	0.1232
Income 2			1.3597 ***	0.2234 ***
House	0.0464	0.0078	0.0344	0.0057
Distance	−0.0492	−0.0083	−0.0634	−0.0104
Member	0.2740	0.0463	0.2512	0.0413
Purchase	0.2368	0.0400 *	0.2623 *	0.0431 *
Familiarity	0.1248	0.0211	0.1294	0.0213
Clean	0.2410 *	0.0407 *	0.2660 *	0.0437 *
Health	−0.1536	−0.0259	−0.1490	−0.0245
Satisfaction	−0.2443 **	−0.0412 **	−0.2841 **	−0.0467 **
Unsanitary	−0.0473	−0.0080	−0.0841	−0.0138
Relatives	0.0635	0.0107	0.0570	0.0094
Reformation	1.4249 ***	0.2405 ***	1.5844 ***	0.2603 ***
Number of obs	476		476
Wald chi2 (16)	68.09		75.38
Prob > chi2	0.0000		0.0000
Log pseudolikelihood	−240.6871		−235.6558

Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

. The Wald tests affirm significance at the 1% level, indicating a robust model fit. Model 3 predominantly incorporates continuous variables, providing more precise measurements, which is the basis for calculating the average WTP. Inserting Model 3’s variable coefficients into Equation (6) facilitated the estimation of the average WTP for sanitary toilet renovations at CNY 790.99—approximately 26.37% of the renovation costs.

Table 6. Logit regression model analysis results of willingness to pay for sanitary toilet renovation among women and men.

Variable	Women				Men
	Model 5		Model 6		Model 7		Model 8
	Coefficient	dy/dx	Coefficient	dy/dx	Coefficient	dy/dx	Coefficient	dy/dx
Intercept	1.3135		0.6444		3.6423 *		4.1435 **
Bid	−0.0057 ***	−0.0010 ***	−0.0058 ***	−0.0010 ***	−0.0057 ***	−0.0009 ***	−0.0058 ***	−0.0009 ***
Age	0.0089	0.0016			−0.0029	−0.0004
Age 1			−0.7243	−0.1237			−0.7181	−0.1063
Age 2			0.0073	0.0013			−0.2263	−0.0335
Age 3			−0.6552	−0.1119			−0.3006	−0.0445
Age 4			−0.4082	−0.0697			−0.6756	−0.1000
Education	0.3324 *	0.0598 **	0.3564 *	0.0609 *	−0.0017	−0.0003	0.0784	0.0116
Income	0.0033	0.0006			0.0170	0.0025
Income 1			1.4055 *	0.2401 *			−0.3570	−0.0528
Income 2			2.1663 ***	0.3701 ***			0.0911	0.0135
House	0.0712	0.0128	0.0473	0.0081	−0.0402	−0.0060	−0.0170	−0.0025
Distance	−0.0545	−0.0098	−0.0748	−0.0128	−0.0637	−0.0095	−0.0623	−0.0092
Member	0.3530	0.0635	0.3172	0.0542	0.3083	0.0462	0.2414	0.0357
Purchase	0.2378	0.0428	0.3056	0.0522	0.2938	0.0440	0.2728	0.0404
Familiarity	0.0437	0.0079	0.0826	0.0141	0.2340	0.0350	0.2394	0.0354
Clean	0.3027	0.0545	0.3715 *	0.0635 *	0.1258	0.0188	0.1384	0.0205
Health	−0.1290	−0.0232	−0.1388	−0.0237	−0.2186	−0.0327	−0.1880	−0.0278
Satisfaction	−0.3560 **	−0.0641 **	−0.4280 **	−0.0731 **	−0.0402	−0.0060	−0.0626	−0.0093
Unsanitary	0.0785	0.0141	0.0356	0.0061	−0.2447	−0.0366	−0.2646	−0.0391
Relatives	0.0505	0.0091	0.0569	0.0097	0.0537	0.0080	0.0537	0.0080
Reformation	1.5264 ***	0.2747 ***	1.6625 ***	0.2840 ***	1.4504 **	0.2172 **	1.3685 *	0.2025*
Number of obs	259		259		217		217
Wald chi2(16)	37.66		45.77		30.99		40.91
Prob > chi2	0.0010		0.0050		0.0088		0.0025
Log pseudo-likelihood	−138.2769		−132.7919		−99.3171		−98.3362

Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

clarifies the factors influencing rural residents’ WTP for sanitary toilet renovations, identifying price, sex, education, household income, toilet cleaning frequency, satisfaction levels, and prior renovation participation as significant determinants. These variables predominantly align with expectations and coherently affect WTP. Specifically, a negative correlation exists between the random price and WTP.

Individual characteristics, particularly sex and education, influence WTP. Men show a higher propensity to engage in the Toilet Revolution initiative than women, with a statistical significance at the 10% level. Similarly, individuals with higher education levels displayed a deeper understanding and, consequently, greater support for the program’s goals. Residents with a monthly income ranging from CNY 10,000 to 199,999 have a stronger inclination toward toilet renovation, with Model 4 suggesting a 22.34% higher likelihood of participation than other income brackets.

Consumption habits, specifically the frequency of household furniture purchases, positively influence rural residents’ willingness to invest in toilet renovation. Model 4 reveals that increased furniture buying correlates with a heightened readiness to finance sanitary improvements, highlighted by 10% statistical significance. Moreover, attitudes toward risk, gauged by the regularity of toilet cleaning, also significantly impact investment willingness. As shown in Model 3, frequent cleaning reflects a strong emphasis on hygiene and sanitation risks, thereby increasing the propensity to fund renovations for safer toilet conditions.

Lastly, the relationship with existing sanitation facilities plays a dual role in shaping financial commitment toward renovations. While satisfaction with their current toilets dampens WTP, as evidenced by a negative correlation, prior engagement in the Toilet Revolution program fosters a contrary effect. Compared with rural residents who have not participated in toilet renovation, the probability of participating in toilet renovation increases by 24.05% on average for those who have participated.

5.4. Comparison of Willingness to Pay Among Different Rural Residents

This study highlights a significant sex-based disparity in willingness to invest in sanitary toilet renovations, with men demonstrating a higher propensity to allocate increased funds for such projects. By incorporating sex-specific variables into the analysis, Table 6 provides detailed insights into the determinants of WTP among rural residents segmented by sex. Women exhibited an average WTP of CNY 745.63, influenced by price sensitivity, educational attainment, toilet cleaning frequency, satisfaction with existing sanitation facilities, and prior renovation participation. Conversely, the male cohort showed an elevated average WTP of CNY 813.81, with their financial commitment primarily driven by price considerations and previous engagement in renovation activities.

6. Discussion

In this study, 69.7% of rural residents expressed willingness to pay more than 300 CNY for upgrading the sanitary toilets, which represents 10% of the cost of constructing a basic rural household sanitary toilet. It indicates that approximately 70% of rural residents have a positive willingness to renovate rural toilets. This demographic segment is the priority target of the government’s Toilet Revolution advocacy, showing a preference for investing in sanitary toilets, influenced by factors such as health-seeking attitude, age, and educational level. Environmental health literacy positively influences rural households’ willingness to participate in living environment improvement [62] and household flushing latrine use [63]. Individuals who recognize the health benefits of sanitary toilets are prepared to incur certain financial costs for the health of themselves and their families. The elderly are less accepting of government policy management due to entrenched habits [64], while younger individuals are more open to financially supporting toilet upgrades. More highly educated individuals have greater trust towards the government due to inspiring an individual’s normalization and institutional affirmation attitudes [65]. They also demonstrate a heightened awareness of the importance of environmental protection [66], which correlates with a greater willingness to support the Toilet Revolution. Consequently, pioneering efforts in sanitary toilet implementation can be effectively initiated by motivating this group.

The average WTP derived from this paper is CNY 790.99, which is equivalent to 2.63 times the required cost of the household in government settings. This indicates that the residents’ motivation to participate is considerably higher than what the government presupposes, and the government can adjust the proportion of rural residents’ payment to approximately 25%. Additionally, this value significantly surpasses the national average of CNY 425.69 as reported by [34]. First, this reflects a significant shift in societal values toward environmental, hygiene, and health concerns over the past decade. Following China declaring victory over poverty, an increasing number of people have sought to improve their quality of life, markedly influencing willingness to invest in sanitary renovation. Second, China has focused on financial investment [32], mobilizing rural residents to take initiative in environmental improvement. Furthermore, the higher sanitary toilet penetration rates in Beijing and Liaoning surveyed in this paper suggest more effective promotion of these facilities.

Rural residents’ WTP for household sanitary toilets is affected by personal characteristics, household characteristics, consumption habits, risk perception, and toilet usage. Demographically, men demonstrate a higher propensity to engage in the toilet renovation program than women. Furthermore, the average WTP of men exceeds that of women by CNY 68.18. This differed from the results of Wu et al. [61] who reported a higher WTP among women. The economic behavior of rural women is affected by multidimensional factors including culture, technology, and household resource endowment, and they tend to exhibit greater risk aversion compared with men [67]. In this study, educational level, frequency of toilet cleaning, and satisfaction with existing toilet affect women’s decision-making. Women are likely to exhibit a lower WTP as they generally adopt a more cautious approach to household expenditures. As income is also a significant factor, WTP for environmental improvements does not always rise with increasing residents’ income [68]. For example, wealthier individuals might opt not to participate in toilet renovations, preferring instead to invest independently in higher-quality sanitary facilities. For those with lower incomes, unwillingness to renovate toilets is often due to financial constraints. They find it difficult to pay the costs in a single payment, and compared to other needs, toilet renovation is a lower priority. To address this issue, it may be considered to allow residents to pay in installments, or to combine this with other credit policies to alleviate the burden.

The frequency of toilet cleaning, existing satisfaction, and engagement in toilet renovation experience also significantly affect residents’ WTP. Individual behavioral intentions are shaped by environmental risk perceptions, leading to a readiness to invest in behaviors that protect the environment [69,70]. As in Wu et al.’s [61] study, unsatisfactory experiences with non-sanitary toilets may motivate individuals to cover toilet renovation costs. Previous engagement in the toilet renovation project positively affects rural residents’ WTP and significantly affects WTP in male and female subgroup regressions. Previous participation experience, like demonstration projects, can grant residents an excellent repair experience, which not only improves their environmental hygiene awareness [71], but also reinforces their confidence toward the government’s project implementation, which is conducive to the promotion of the Toilet Revolution.

The benefits of sanitation facility renovation extend beyond environmental health alone. Psychological studies have shown that the use of sanitary toilets can reduce farmers’ depression scores by 66.9% [72], and the widespread adoption of flush toilets can also free up labor [33]. International experiences further validate the comprehensive value of the Toilet Revolution: India’s Swachh Bharat Mission has increased rural toilet coverage from 39% to 95% [73], providing each household with annual benefits of approximately USD 727 due to reduced diarrheal morbidity and time savings associated with improved sanitation facilities [74]. Infant and child mortality rates have also accelerated their decline following the implementation of Swachh Bharat Mission [75]. However, official data published by the Indian government may overestimate actual toilet coverage, as open defecation rates remain notably high in certain states, indicating incomplete behavioral transformation [76]. Ensuring the sustainability of Swachh Bharat Mission outcomes requires strengthened multi-stakeholder collaboration and continuous monitoring [77]. In Sub-Saharan Africa and Brazil, efforts to improve national sanitation facilities through the Service Availability and Readiness Assessment and the National Plan for Sanitation have proven to be less effective [78,79]. Nepal has implemented a nationwide Open Defecation Free policy since 2007, yet by 2018, only 49 out of 77 districts had achieved the target, largely because residents continue to prefer open defecation due to personal preferences, cultural beliefs, and traditional norms [80]. These international experiences suggest that government initiatives alone are insufficient to achieve comprehensive sanitation improvements. Instead, collaborative efforts among governments, residents, social enterprises, and social organizations are essential.

Based on the theory of collaborative governance, this paper proposes to construct a multi-stakeholder collaborative governance system for the Toilet Revolution. Aiming towards financial difficulties of governments [26], especially those in developing countries, we suggest implementing a cost-sharing mechanism to finance the program. To quantitatively capture the willingness to pay for China’s rural Toilet Revolution, we recommend increasing the proportion of rural residents’ payment to approximately 25%. This study primarily focuses on the cost-sharing mechanism between the government and rural households, but the roles of social enterprises and social organizations are also crucial in this collaborative governance model. Social enterprises have the potential to introduce innovative solutions and alternative financing options into traditional sanitation projects. Social organizations play a pivotal role in advocacy, raising awareness, and mobilizing resources. This paper also explores the determinants of residents’ willingness to pay, such as household income and previous engagement, which fills a gap in the literature and provides an understanding of the socio-economic factors influencing the sustainability of rural human settlements, thus enriching the direction of the ecological and environmental construction efforts.

While this study provides important insights into the factors influencing the WTP for the modernization of sanitation facilities in rural areas, it is important to acknowledge its limitations. The research focuses on individual and household factors but does not consider social factors such as village leadership and cultural norms, which could also affect the WTP for toilet improvements. These should be considered in future research. The study introduces a theory of collaborative governance for the Toilet Revolution, focusing primarily on the cost-sharing mechanism between the government and rural households. However, it has not empirically tested the roles of other actors (such as social organizations), and future research should include these stakeholders to refine the governance mechanisms for better practice. The survey primarily covers rural residents in Beijing and Liaoning. Although these areas are representative, the findings may not be fully applicable to other rural areas. Future research should expand to other regions to achieve broader coverage.

7. Conclusion and Policy Implications

Based on the theory of collaborative governance, this study elucidates several key insights concerning rural residents’ willingness to invest in sanitary toilet upgrades. The average WTP for upgrading sanitary toilets among rural residents is estimated at CNY 790.99, constituting approximately 26.37% of the actual renovation costs, and the ratio of government and residents’ contributions can be determined as 3:1. A significant correlation was identified between the frequency of toilet cleaning and WTP. Conversely, satisfaction with existing toilets inversely impacts WTP. Additionally, previous participation in toilet renovations emerged as a positive determinant of WTP.

The findings of this study underscore the importance of addressing rural sanitation issues through the Toilet Revolution initiative, highlighting a significant opportunity to enhance public health and living standards across rural China. To effectively leverage these insights, it is essential to translate them into actionable policy measures that can drive meaningful changes. Below, we refine the proposed policy implications to align more closely with the strategic objectives and practical execution.

(1) Intensify Hygiene Education and Awareness Campaigns. It is imperative to escalate educational efforts that underscore health and environmental benefits of improved sanitation. Tailored campaigns aimed at rural populations can play a pivotal role in altering perceptions and encouraging proactive engagement in sanitation improvements. Emphasizing the connection between sanitation and health outcomes could catalyze a grassroots movement toward higher living standards.

(2) Adopt a Tailored Approach to Sanitation Improvements. Acknowledging the varied needs and conditions of rural areas, it is critical to develop and implement tailored sanitation improvement plans. By customizing strategies to fit local contexts—considering cultural norms, economic conditions, and environmental constraints—these plans can mobilize community participation and support more effectively.

(3) Establish Robust Post-Renovation Support Systems. Ensuring the sustainability of sanitation improvements requires ongoing management and maintenance. Developing a comprehensive support framework led and coordinated by governmental bodies is crucial. This should include regular maintenance schedules, community training on hygiene practices, feedback mechanisms, and continuous improvement. Strengthening governance around these initiatives can further ensure their long-term success and community buy-ins.

(4) Diversify Funding Mechanisms and Partnerships. Expanding the financial base for sanitation projects is critical for achieving widespread and sustainable impact. This can involve exploring various funding avenues, including public–private partnerships, international aid, and community crowdfunding. Encouraging investment from multiple sources alleviates the financial burden on any single entity and fosters a collective commitment to improving rural sanitation.

Successful implementation of these policy recommendations requires a collaborative effort across government agencies, non-governmental organizations, community leaders, and the private sector. By fostering collaboration and leveraging the insights gained from this study, it is possible to make significant strides toward achieving the goals of the Toilet Revolution, ultimately improving the health, well-being, and quality of life of millions of rural residents in China.