Hematological Parameters of Clinically Healthy Indigenous Greek Goats (Capra prisca) and Their Associations with Parasitological Findings, Age and Reproductive Stage

Abstract

Objectives: The present study aimed to determine the reference intervals for complete blood count and total protein parameters in Greek indigenous Capra prisca goats and to evaluate their associations with parasitic burden, age and reproductive stage. Methods: Two-hundred clinically health goats were grouped by parasite status (gastrointestinal nematodes, Eimeria spp., and lungworm infection), age (3–6-month-old growing kids; lactating non-pregnant goats ≤ 3 or >3 years old) and reproductive stage (non-lactating pregnant goats; lactating non-pregnant goats). Blood samples were analyzed for erythrogram, leukogram and megakaryocytic parameters using an automated analyzer and manual blood smears. Total plasma proteins were measured using refractometry. Results: Gastrointestinal nematode-infected animals (>300 eggs per gram of feces) were associated with a significant reduction in red blood cell counts and hematocrit estimation, and an increase in mean corpuscular hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations, while lungworm-infected animals were associated with decreased red blood cells, red cell distribution width and neutrophils, and increased lymphocytes compared to non-infected animals. Eimeria spp. affected only basophils in growing kids. Age influenced all erythrocytic and leukocytic parameters (apart from neutrophils and monocytes), as well as all megakaryocytic parameters and total proteins, with younger animals showing higher red and white blood cell counts and platelets compared to adults. Pregnant does had elevated hemoglobin, hematocrit, neutrophils and monocytes compared with lactating non-pregnant does. Conclusions: The calculated 95% reference intervals for our demographic groups of animals provide a useful diagnostic framework for assessing Capra prisca health in Greek goat farming.

1. Introduction

Complete blood count (CBC) has become an essential part of the diagnostic investigation for many diseases of small ruminants. The increasing use of modern equipment, such as automated hematological analyzers, in combination with the farmers’ awareness of the benefits of diagnostic examinations, has established CBC as an important tool for managing the health of small ruminants, both preventively and therapeutically [1]. The interpretation of CBC combined with the findings of clinical examination and other diagnostic approaches contributes to the assessment of the animals’ health before transportation or sale, their nutritional status, and their general management practices, as well as their presurgical, surgical, and postsurgical conditions [2]. They indicate the response to pharmaceutical treatment, point to specific differential diagnoses, and suggest a prognosis [2,3,4,5,6,7,8].

Reference intervals (RI) are required for the correct interpretation of CBC. Many published studies have evaluated the RIs of hematological parameters in animal species. However, several differences have been recorded for these parameters [9], affected by stress status, age and its relationship with immune responses, nutritional status, altitude, season of the year, management system, other diseases, sex, reproductive stage, and parasitic burden in the animals.

In general, stressful conditions alter the natural behavior of animals by increasing their mobility. This increased mobility can affect the values of hematological parameters of small ruminants. Under stressful conditions, two factors, “leukocytosis-inducing factor” (LIF) and “colony-stimulating factor” (CSF), are released, increasing the mobilization of red blood cells into the bloodstream [10,11,12]. Age is another factor affecting the interpretation of CBC [11,13,14]. Increased neutrophils were detected in 2-week-old ruminants, while increased lymphocytes were recorded in adults [9]. Furthermore, leukocyte levels increased gradually until the age of 3 months and returned to baseline levels during adulthood [15]. Age-related changes in the number of red blood cells and the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration have been reported [14,16,17]. The correlation between age and immune response should be taken into consideration, as lower levels of eosinophils have been found in 3–4-year-old animals compared to 1–2 and 5–6-year-old animals [17,18].

The nutritional status, altitude, season of the year, and management system (i.e., extensive, semi-intensive and intensive) seem to influence the interpretation of CBC [11,19,20,21]. Subsequent pathological conditions can affect the values of hematological parameters [15], while other studies correlate animals’ sex with fluctuations in hematocrit, hemoglobin, and red blood cells [22]. The reproductive stage of the animal, particularly the transition period, is another determining factor. Studies conducted by Tharwat et al. [23] noted a decrease in red blood cells, monocytes, and hematocrit and an increase in neutrophils during late gestation. Parturition signaled an increase in white blood cells and a decrease in the mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration [12,24,25].

Parasitic burden is another factor that affects the interpretation of the CBC [26,27,28,29,30]. Ruminants are affected by a wide variety of both endoparasites [31] and ectoparasites, of which the most interesting are those associated with blood sucking [31,32,33,34]. Some studies have linked the increase in eosinophils in the bloodstream to parasitic burden [30], while others have questioned this association [35]. Therefore, many factors must be considered to ensure the correct interpretation of the CBC as indicative of the animal’s health status.

Although Greece possesses the first position in goat breeding in European Union [36,37] and goat production remains an extremely important branch of national animal production [38], studies on the determination of hematological RI in indigenous Greek goats (Capra prisca) have not been conducted, to date. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were as follows: (i) determine the RIs of CBC and total proteins of clinically healthy goats of Greek indigenous Capra prisca breed, reared under semi-intensive management system; and to (ii) evaluate their possible associations with parasitic infections, age and reproductive stage.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Flocks’ History

Ten dairy goat flocks, from two different regions of mainland Greece (i.e., Central Macedonia and Thessaly), were included in the study. The average flock size was ca. 300 does, with an average milk yield of approximately 190 L per animal per lactation period (i.e., 250 days). The included farms were representative of the typical Greek semi-intensive management system, as described by Gelasakis et al. [39]. Their feeding regimes were similar and were based on grazing on natural pastures for minimum 6–8 h per day, throughout the study. Supplementary feeding, including up to 1.0 kg of concentrates and up to 1.0 kg of alfalfa hay, was provided to the animals twice per day. Finally, ad libitum access to wheat straw and water was provided to the animals.

All included flocks followed similar vaccination and anthelmintic protocols. Namely, the does were vaccinated twice against Clostridium spp. and Pasteurella spp. (Dialuene P^®, MSD, Eindhoven, The Netherlands), 30 days before parturition and six months later. An extra vaccination against Mycoplasma agalactiae (Agalax^®, SYVA, Leon, Spain) was also performed at the aforementioned occasions. The antiparasitic program included the oral administration of albendazole peels once, at a dose of 10 mg/kg BW, 30 days pre-lambing. Animals involved in the study were clinically healthy and had not received anthelmintic treatment within the 4 months preceding the study.

2.2. Experimental Design

The study lasted from November 2022 to April 2023. In total, 200 clinically healthy animals from 10 flocks (i.e., 20 animals per flock) were randomly selected and included in the study. In each farm, the participating animals were divided into 4 demographic groups (i.e., 5 animals per group) as follows: (i) female growing kids 3–6 months old, (ii) non-lactating multiparous does in late gestation, (iii) non-pregnant multiparous does in lactation ≤ 3 years old, and (iv) non–pregnant multiparous does in lactation > 3 years old.

To determine the possible effect of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infection on CBC and total proteins, all adult goats (n = 150) were divided in 3 groups; Group 1 consisted of non-infected adult goats (n = 66), Group 2 consisted of adult goats (n = 30) infected from 1 to ≤300 eggs per g of feces (EPG), and finally, Group 3 consisted of adult goats (n = 54) infected with >300 EPG. For EPG counts, the value of 300 EPG was defined because in previous studies it had been considered as the threshold above which anthelmintic treatments should be performed [40]. To estimate the possible effect of Eimeria spp. infection on CBC and total proteins, all young kids (n = 50) were divided into 2 groups; Group 4 consisted of Eimeria-negative growing kids (n = 20) 3–6 months old, and Group 5 consisted of Eimeria-positive growing kids (n = 30) within the same age range. To evaluate the possible effect of lungworm infection on CBC and total proteins, all adult goats (n = 150) were divided in 2 Groups; Group 6 included adult goats (n = 54) that tested negative for lungworm infection, and Group 7 included adult goats (n = 96) that tested positive for lungworm infection with at least one species of lungworm.

To estimate the possible effect of age on CBC and total proteins, all animals, excluding pregnant ones (n = 150), were divided into 3 groups; Group A consisted of 50 growing kids 3–6 months old, Group B consisted of 50 lactating non-pregnant multiparous does > 3 years old and finally, and Group C consisted of 50 lactating non-pregnant multiparous does ≤ 3 years old.

Finally, the possible effect of reproductive stage (i.e., pregnant or non-pregnant does) on CBC and total proteins was evaluated by dividing all animals (n = 150), excluding the young growing ones, into 2 groups; Group I consisted of non-lactating pregnant multiparous does (n = 50) and Group II consisted of lactating non-pregnant multiparous ones (n = 100).

2.3. Blood Sampling and Determination of the Complete Blood Count

A single blood sample was collected from each animal via jugular vein puncture, using a 21 G, 1.5-inch needle. Samples were drawn into 4 mL EDTA-coated vacuum glass tubes (BD Vacutainer^®, Becton, Dickinson and Company, Plymouth, UK).

In every blood sample taken, the erythrocytic parameters (i.e., red blood cells—RBCs, hematocrit—HCT, hemoglobin—HGB, mean corpuscular volume—MCV, mean corpuscular hemoglobin—MCH, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration—MCHC and red cell distribution—RDW) and the megakaryocytic parameters (i.e., platelets—PLT and mean platelet volume—MPV) were determined using the automatic hematological analyzer Mythic^® 18Vet (Orphee S.A., Geneva, Switzerland). The leukocytic parameters, including white blood cell (WBC) counts and their differential leukocyte counts (i.e., neutrophils—NEUT, lymphocytes—LYM, monocytes—MONO, eosinophils—EOS, basophils—BASO and large unstained cells—LUC) were determined, using blood smears prepared immediately after sampling. The smears were stained with Giemsa and examined manually under an optical microscope.

2.4. Determination of the Total Proteins

The determination of total proteins (TP) in plasma blood was performed using the Atago^® T2-NE clinical refractometer (Atago Ltd., Tokyo, Japan), according to the manufacturers’ instructions.

2.5. Fecal Sampling and Parasitological Procedures

Fecal samples were collected from each animal once, across the four demographic groups, following blood sampling. Collection was performed directly from the rectum using single-use plastic gloves and lubricant to ensure hygiene and minimize discomfort. The samples were stored and transported in isothermal containers (maintained at +2–+4 °C) to the Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Veterinary School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. All procedures were carried out by a trained veterinarian in accordance with animal welfare regulations to minimize stress and ensure ethical handling of the animals.

Standard parasitological techniques, including the modified McMaster method (enumeration of Strongyle eggs in feces) [41], as well as the flotation and sedimentation methods (qualitative identification of parasitic elements; eggs, larvae and oocysts [42]) were performed to analyze all fecal samples. Additionally, individual fecal samples were forwarded for coprocultures, following the guidelines of the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food [43]. After a 7–10-day incubation period, third-stage (L₃) nematode larvae were recovered using the Baermann technique [44]. Morphological identification of up to 100 parasitic L₃ larvae per sample was performed based on keys provided by Van Wyk and Mayhew [45].

2.6. Determination of the Reference Intervals

The 95% RIs of non-parasitized young and adult does (i.e., age-related RI) as well as non-parasitized pregnant and non-pregnant animals (i.e., reproductive stage-related RI) were calculated using the Reference Value Advisor (v.2.1) freeware (RefValAdv), an Excel macro suite [46], in accordance with the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines [47]. The RefValAdv output includes descriptive statistics, histograms, and Q-Q plots for each parameter and computes 95% RIs with 90% confidence intervals, considering data distribution (normality and symmetry), outliers, and sample size.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was carried out using Stata13 (StataCorp. 2013. Stata Statistical Software: Release 13. College Station, TX, USA: StataCorp LLC). The D’Agostino test was used to determine the distribution of the continuous parameters measured in this study. Logarithmic and square root transformations were used to approximate normal distribution.

Pairwise comparison of means (Bonferroni correction) was used to examine the possible associations of blood parameters with age and reproductive stage, at a univariate level. Linear regression was used to assess the possible associations between blood parameters and parasitic load. Robust standard errors were used to account for clustering at farm level. Wilcoxon rank-sum (Mann-Witney test) was used where normality could not be achieved.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics of the Blood Parameters and Total Proteins

The values of mean ± standard deviation of each hematological parameter of CBC and TP were determined for all 200 animals included in our study. Specifically, RBC count was 15.10 ± 3.02 (10⁶/μL), HGB concentration was 8.42 ± 1.21 (g/dL), HCT was 22.18 ± 3.46 (%), MCV was 14.96 ± 2.13 (fL), MCH was 5.68 ± 0.71 (pg), MCHC was 38.15 ± 2.70 (g/dL), and RDW was 25.39 ± 3.27 (%). Among WBC count [11.21 ± 4.16 (10³/μL)], NEUT were recorded at 4.31 ± 2.29 (10³/μL), LYM at 6.22 ± 3.15 (10³/μL), MONO at 0.23 ± 0.17 (10³/μL), EOS at 0.32 ± 0.32 (10³/μL), BASO at 0.10 ± 0.07 (10³/μL), and LUC 0.04 ± 0.04 (10³/μL). PLT count was 566.30 ± 304.45 (10³/μL) and MPV was 7.02 ± 2.02 (fL). Finally, TP were measured at 7.62 ± 1.13 (g/dL).

3.2. Descriptive Statistics of the Parasitological Findings

Regarding the results of the quantitative (i.e., modified McMaster method) parasitological procedure, the mean ± standard deviation of the fecal egg counts (FEC) was 199.85 ± 305.01 EPG. According to the qualitative (i.e., Teleman method) parasitological procedure, protozoan parasites, namely Eimeria spp. oocysts, were detected in 81 (40.5%) out of the 200 animals; trematode parasites, namely Dicrocoelium spp., Paramphistomum spp., and Faschiola spp., were detected in 24/200 (12.0%), 1/200 (0.5%), and 1/200 (0.5%) animals, respectively; and no (0.0%) cestode parasites, namely Moniezia spp., were detected in any fecal samples.

Furthermore, nematode parasites belonging to the Trichostrongylidae family, namely Teladorsagia spp., Haemonchus spp., Trichostrongylus spp., Chabertia spp., Cooperia spp., and Bunostomum spp., were recovered from 84 (42.0%) out of the 200 animals, while Trichuris spp., Nematodirus spp., and Strongyloides papillosus were recovered from 23/200 (11.5%), 10/200 (5.0%), and 6/200 (3.0%), respectively. Finally, a significant number of the participating animals harbored pulmonary nematodes. More precisely, Muellerius spp., Protostrongylus spp., Dictyocaulus spp., and Cystocaulus spp. infection rates were 40.0% (80/200), 14.0% (28/200), 10.5% (21/200), and 7.0% (14/200), respectively.

Coprocultures revealed the presence of Haemonchus spp., Teladorsagia spp., and Trichostrongylus spp. at a percentage of 53.0%, 36.0%, and 6.0%, respectively, while other less-prevailing GIN, namely Bunostomum spp., Chabertia spp., and Cooperia spp., were detected at a percentage of 5%, in total.

Finally, it should be pointed out that blood-eating ectoparasites (i.e., fleas, lice, ticks, etc.) have not been detected, after careful examination of the animals included in our study.

3.3. Reference Intervals of the Complete Blood Count and Total Proteins

The calculated 95% RIs of CBC and TP for non-parasitized (i) growing kids 3–6 months old, (ii) non-lactating pregnant goats, (iii) lactating non-pregnant goats > 3 years old, and (iv) lactating non-pregnant goats ≤ 3 years old, all belonging to Capra prisca breed, are presented in

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and reference intervals (95%) for the complete hematological parameters and total proteins of Capra prisca growing kids, aged 3–6 months old.

				95% Reference Intervals
Parameter		Mean	Standard Deviation	Lower Limit	Upper Limit
Red blood cells	(106/μL)	19.195	1.874	18.318	20.073
Hemoglobin	(g/dL)	9.140	0.848	8.742	9.537
Hematocrit	(%)	23.920	2.937	22.545	25.294
Mean corpuscular volume	(fL)	12.525	1.731	11.714	13.335
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin	(pg)	4.795	0.455	4.581	5.008
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	(g/dL)	38.445	2.943	37.067	39.822
Red cell distribution width	(%)	29.660	2.852	28.324	30.995
White blood cells	(103/μL)	15.275	4.094	13.358	17.191
Neutrophils	(103/μL)	4.300	1.765	3.473	5.126
Lymphocytes	(103/μL)	10.225	2.900	8.867	11.582
Monocytes	(103/μL)	0.225	0.121	0.168	0.281
Eosinophils	(103/μL)	0.245	0.149	0.174	0.315
Basophils	(103/μL)	0.204	0.091	0.161	0.246
Large unstained cells	(103/μL)	0.086	0.095	0.041	0.131
Platelets	(103/μL)	780.550	226.491	674.548	886.551
Mean platelets volume	(fL)	5.350	0.308	5.205	5.494
Total proteins	(g/dL)	7.115	0.838	6.722	7.507

Numbers in red color indicate means below or above the recommended reference intervals, which are presented in Table 5.

,

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and reference intervals (95%) for the complete hematological parameters and total proteins of Capra prisca non-lactating pregnant goats.

				95% Reference Intervals
Parameter		Mean	Standard Deviation	Lower Limit	Upper Limit
Red blood cells	(106/μL)	14.851	2.775	13.678	16.022
Hemoglobin	(g/dL)	8.800	1.489	8.171	9.429
Hematocrit	(%)	24.112	3.567	22.606	25.619
Mean corpuscular volume	(fL)	16.421	1.664	15.718	17.123
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin	(pg)	5.970	0.546	5.740	6.201
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	(g/dL)	36.491	2.284	35.526	37.456
Red cell distribution width	(%)	25.325	2.268	24.367	26.282
White blood cells	(103/μL)	11.379	4.608	9.433	13.325
Neutrophils	(103/μL)	6.091	3.827	4.475	7.707
Lymphocytes	(103/μL)	4.591	1.495	3.960	5.223
Monocytes	(103/μL)	0.304	0.205	0.217	0.391
Eosinophils	(103/μL)	0.300	0.298	0.174	0.426
Basophils	(103/μL)	0.067	0.037	0.052	0.083
Large unstained cells	(103/μL)	0.027	0.014	0.021	0.033
Platelets	(103/μL)	439.166	253.397	332.166	546.166
Mean platelets volume	(fL)	7.708	1.922	6.896	8.520
Total proteins	(g/dL)	7.958	1.333	7.395	8.521

Number in red color indicates mean above the recommended reference intervals, which are presented in Table 5.

,

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and reference intervals (95%) for the complete hematological parameters and total proteins of Capra prisca lactating non-pregnant goats, aged > 3 years old.

				95% Reference Intervals
Parameter		Mean	Standard Deviation	Lower Limit	Upper Limit
Red blood cells	(106/μL)	13.208	1.252	12.653	13.764
Hemoglobin	(g/dL)	7.563	0.867	7.179	7.948
Hematocrit	(%)	20.250	2.367	19.200	21.299
Mean corpuscular volume	(fL)	15.427	2.135	14.480	16.374
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin	(pg)	5.750	0.610	5.479	6.020
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	(g/dL)	37.472	2.834	36.215	38.729
Red cell distribution width	(%)	23.822	1.596	23.114	24.530
White blood cells	(103/μL)	8.427	1.930	7.571	9.283
Neutrophils	(103/μL)	4.381	1.551	3.694	5.069
Lymphocytes	(103/μL)	3.531	1.157	3.018	4.044
Monocytes	(103/μL)	0.236	0.221	0.138	0.334
Eosinophils	(103/μL)	0.205	0.147	0.141	0.271
Basophils	(103/μL)	0.054	0.023	0.043	0.064
Large unstained cells	(103/μL)	0.024	0.016	0.016	0.031
Platelets	(103/μL)	468.545	301.785	334.741	602.349
Mean platelets volume	(fL)	7.463	2.067	6.547	8.380
Total proteins	(g/dL)	7.736	0.886	7.343	8.129

Numbers in red color indicate means below or above the recommended reference intervals, which are presented in Table 5.

, and

Table 4. Descriptive statistics and reference intervals (95%) for the complete hematological parameters and total proteins of Capra prisca lactating non-pregnant goats, aged ≤ 3 years old.

				95% Reference Intervals
Parameter		Mean	Standard Deviation	Lower Limit	Upper Limit
Red blood cells	(106/μL)	15.202	2.523	14.021	16.383
Hemoglobin	(g/dL)	8.835	1.234	8.257	9.412
Hematocrit	(%)	23.545	3.738	21.795	25.294
Mean corpuscular volume	(fL)	15.575	1.224	15.002	16.147
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin	(pg)	5.845	0.446	5.636	6.054
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	(g/dL)	37.605	1.426	36.937	38.272
Red cell distribution width	(%)	23.390	2.827	22.065	24.713
White blood cells	(103/μL)	10.355	3.191	8.861	11.848
Neutrophils	(103/μL)	4.340	1.394	3.687	4.992
Lymphocytes	(103/μL)	5.250	2.344	4.152	6.347
Monocytes	(103/μL)	0.245	0.216	0.143	0.346
Eosinophils	(103/μL)	0.432	0.455	0.219	0.645
Basophils	(103/μL)	0.094	0.056	0.068	0.121
Large unstained cells	(103/μL)	0.023	0.013	0.017	0.029
Platelets	(103/μL)	489.150	207.013	392.264	586.035
Mean platelets volume	(fL)	7.155	1.794	6.315	7.994
Total proteins	(g/dL)	7.550	0.810	7.171	7.929

Number in red color indicates mean above the recommended reference intervals, which are presented in Table 5.

, respectively. The numbers in red color in each table (i.e., Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4) indicate the means of CBC and TP below or above the normal RI recommended by U.C. Davis [48], which are presented in

Table 5. Reference intervals (95%) for complete hematological parameters and total proteins in goats, recommended by U.C. Davis [48].

		95% Reference Intervals
Parameter		Lower Limit	Upper Limit
Red blood cells	(106/μL)	11.500	21.000
Hemoglobin	(g/dL)	8.200	12.400
Hematocrit	(%)	23.000	36.000
Mean corpuscular volume	(fL)	15.000	23.000
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin	(pg)	5.500	8.000
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	(g/dL)	32.500	38.000
Red cell distribution width	(%)	21.000	28.000
White blood cells	(103/μL)	5.000	17.000
Neutrophils	(103/μL)	0.700	7.600
Lymphocytes	(103/μL)	2.500	12.000
Monocytes	(103/μL)	0.0700	0.5700
Eosinophils	(103/μL)	0.000	2.000
Basophils	(103/μL)	0.000	0.2500
Large unstained cells	(103/μL)	N/A	N/A
Platelets	(103/μL)	340.000	900.000
Mean platelets volume	(fL)	3.700	7.100
Total proteins	(g/dL)	6.000	8.000

.

3.4. Effect of the Fecal Egg Counts on the Values of the Complete Blood Count and Total Proteins

Statistical analysis of the data derived from the 150 participating adult goats showed that FEC (EPG) had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on four (i.e., RBC, HCT, MCH, and MCHC) out of seven values of the erythrogram. HGB, MCV, and RDW were the other three values of the erythrogram that were not affected (p > 0.05) by FEC. More precisely, adult does infected with >300 EPG (Group 3) recorded the lowest (p ≤ 0.05) values of RBC and HCT and the highest (p ≤ 0.05) values of MCH and MCHC (

Table 6. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches among three groups (Group 1, 2 and 3) of goats infected with different fecal egg counts (EPG).

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
1	14.223 a	13.668–14.801	8.294 a	7.979–8.623	22.377 a	21.533–23.254	15.737 a	15.312–16.174	5.834 a	5.702–5.970	37.088 a	36.536–37.647	24.122 a	23.547–24.713
2	14.472 a	13.669–15.322	8.427 a	7.988–8.891	22.317 a	21.086–23.620	15.424 a	14.851–16.019	5.829 a	5.660–6.003	37.796 a	36.893–38.721	23.650 a	22.805–24.526
3	12.867 b	12.351–13.405	7.842 a	7.569–8.125	20.284 b	19.496–21.105	15.764 a	15.356–16.182	6.088 b	5.923–6.258	38.676 b	37.895–39.473	24.156 a	23.505–24.825
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 4.45		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.46		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.23		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.61		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.09		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.53		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.97
	R2 = 0.0988, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0413, p = 0.140		R2 = 0.0885, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0066, p = 0.562		R2 = 0.0472, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0735, p = 0.073		R2 = 0.0070, p = 0.416
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
1	9.580 a	8.878–10.337	4.431 a	3.931–4.995	4.140 a	3.780–4.534	0.200 a	z (1, 2) = 0.969	0.225 a	0.187–0.271	0.061 a	0.054–0.070	0.022 a	0.018–0.026
2	9.999 a	8.936–11.189	3.623 b	3.078–4.265	5.432 b	4.847–6.088	0.150 a	z (2, 3) = −0.737	0.354 a	0.252–0.496	0.079 a	0.066–0.096	0.022 a	0.125–0.030
3	9.107 a	8.453–9.813	3.213 c	2.720–3.796	4.722 c	4.286–5.203	0.200 a	z (1, 3) = 0.269	0.239 a	0.193–0.297	0.059 a	0.0523–0.067	0.025 a	0.020–0.032
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.01		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 6.38		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 7.85				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.39		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.34		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.04
	R2 = 0.0138, p = 0.189		R2 = 0.0717, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0803, p ≤ 0.05				R2 = 0.0455, p = 0.146		R2 = 0.0472, p = 0.152		R2 = 0.0068, p = 0.392
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelet Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
1	425.147 a	363.776–491.299	7.226 a	6.791–7.689	7.761 a	7.502–8.019
2	472.818 a	370.921–587.067	7.198 a	6.441–8.046	7.947 a	7.621–8.272
2	453.903 a	387.803–525.201	7.402 a	6.911–7.927	7.861 a	7.491–8.231
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.50		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.08		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.37
	R2 = 0.0052, p = 0.623		R2 = 0.0022, p = 0.919		R2 = 0.0040, p = 0.697
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach; Group 1: Adult goats (n = 66) with zero parasitic eggs per gram of feces (EPG); Group 2: Adult goats (n = 30) infected with 1 to ≤300 EPG; Group 3: Adult goats (n = 54) infected with >300 EPG. Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI, different ^{a, b} and ^c superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count.

).

Furthermore, FEC (EPG) significantly affected (p ≤ 0.05) some important parameters of the leukogram, namely NEUT and LYM. No effect (p > 0.05) of FEC on the values of WBC, MONO, EOS, BASO, and LUC was recorded. More precisely, adult does infected with > 300 EPG (Group 3) and non-infected adult does (Group 1) presented the lowest (p ≤ 0.05) values of NEUT and LYM, respectively, compared to other groups (Table 6).

Finally, the values of PLT, MPV, and TP remained unaffected (p > 0.05) by FEC, as shown in Table 6.

3.5. Effect of Eimeria spp. Infection on the Values of the Complete Blood Count and Total Proteins

Statistical analysis of the data derived from the 50 participating growing kids 3–6 months old showed that Eimeria spp. infection, the only parasitic genus detected in this group, did not affect significantly (p > 0.05)any parameter of CBC, except one (i.e., BASO). More precisely, Eimeria-infected kids (Group 5) recorded lower (p ≤ 0.05) values of BASO compared to Eimeria-negative (Group 4) ones (Table 7).

3.6. Effect of the Lungworms on the Values of the Complete Blood Count and Total Proteins

Statistical analysis of the data derived from the participated 150 adult goats showed that lungworm infection had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on three (i.e., RBC, MCH, and RDW) out of seven values of the erythrogram. HGB, HCT, MCV, and MCHC were the other four values of the erythrogram that were not affected (p > 0.05) by lungworm infection. More precisely, lungworm-infected adult goats (Group 7) recorded the lowest (p ≤ 0.05) values of RBC and RDW and the highest (p ≤ 0.05) value of MCH compared to non-infected (Group 6) ones (Table 8).

Furthermore, lungworm infection significantly affected (p ≤ 0.05) the values of NEUT and LYM. The values of WBC, MONO, EOS, BASO and LUC were not affected (p > 0.05) by lungworm infection. More precisely, adult goats infected with lungworms (Group 7) presented the lowest (p ≤ 0.001) values of NEUT and the highest (p ≤ 0.05) values of LYM, compared to those of Group 6 (Table 8).

Finally, the values of PLT, MPV, and TP remained unaffected (p > 0.05) by lungworm infection, as shown in Table 8.

3.7. Effect of Age on the Values of the Complete Blood Count and Total Proteins

Statistical analysis of the data derived from young growing kids and lactating non-pregnant adult goats (n = 150, in total) revealed that age had a significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on all seven erythrogram values (i.e., RBC, HGB, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC and RDW). More precisely, RBC and RDW values decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.001) with the increase in animal age. Lactating non-pregnant goats > 3 years old (Group B) recorded the lowest (p ≤ 0.001) values of HGB and HCT compared to those of Group A (i.e., growing kids 3–6 months old) and C (i.e., lactating non-pregnant goats ≤ 3 years old). Furthermore, kids of Group A presented the lowest values of both MCV and MCH, which significantly (p ≤ 0.001) increased as they became adults. Finally, the lactating non-pregnant goats ≤ 3 years old (Group C) recorded the lowest values of MCHC compared to the respective values of the other two groups. Details are presented in Table 9.

Age significantly affected (p ≤ 0.05) important parameters of the leukogram, namely WBC, LYM, EOS, BASO, and LUC. No effect (p > 0.05) of age on NEUT and MONO values was recorded. More precisely, WBC, LYM, BASO, and LUC followed the same pattern, with their highest (p ≤ 0.001) values recorded in growing kids 3–6 months old (Group A) compared to the other two groups. Regarding EOS, the middle-aged group (Group C) recorded the highest (p ≤ 0.05) values compared to the other two groups (Table 9).

Megakaryocytic parameters (i.e., PLT and MPV) were significantly (p ≤ 0.001) affected by the animals’ age. Animals in Group A recorded the highest (p ≤ 0.001) values of PLT count, as well as the lowest (p ≤ 0.001) values of MPV compared to Groups B and C. Last but not least, TP presented an age-dependent pattern, with animals in Group A (i.e., growing kids 3–6 months old) recording the lowest (p ≤ 0.05) values compared to the other two groups (Table 9).

3.8. Effect of Reproductive Stage on the Values of the Complete Blood Count and Total Proteins

The reproductive stage (i.e., pregnant or non-pregnant does) of the adult does (n = 150) significantly affected (p ≤ 0.001) only two hematological parameters of the erythrogram, according to the results of our statistical analysis. These parameters were the values of HGB and HCT. The five other parameters (i.e., RBC, MCV, MCH, MCHC, and RDW) remained unaffected (p > 0.05) by the reproductive stage. More precisely, non-lactating pregnant adult goats (Group I), during their final stage of gestation, recorded the highest values of HGB and HCT, compared to the lactating non-pregnant (Group II) adult ones (Table 10).

Furthermore, NEUT and MONO were affected significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by the reproductive stage. No effect (p > 0.05) of the reproductive stage was recorded on the values of WBC, LYM, EOS, BASO, and LUC. More precisely, both NEUT (p ≤ 0.05) and MONO (p ≤ 0.001) followed the same pattern (Table 10) by recording their highest values in the group of non-lactating pregnant adult goats (Group I) compared to lactating non-pregnant ones (Group II).

Finally, the values of PLT, MPV, and TP remained unaffected (p > 0.05) by different reproductive stages, as shown in Table 10.

Table 7. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches between two groups (Group 4 and 5) of kids with different Eimeria spp. infection status.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
4	19.102 a	18.200–20.049	9.101 a	8.702–9.519	23.743 a	22.381–25.188	12.417 a	11.665–13.217	4.775 a	4.575–4.985	38.333 a	36.938–39.781	29.525 a	28.189–30.925
5	17.973 a	17.141–18.847	8.789 a	8.424–9.170	22.413 a	21.331–23.549	12.460 a	12.005–12.933	4.887 a	4.754–5.024	39.199 a	38.359–40.058	28.593 a	27.740–29.472
St	n = 50, F(1, 9) = 4.43		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 3.15		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 2.60		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.01		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 1.60		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.80		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 1.97
	R2 = 0.062, p = 0.062		R2 = 0.026, p = 0.110		R2 = 0.047, p = 0.141		R2 = 0.0002, p = 0.920		R2 = 0.0197, p = 0.238		R2 = 0.027, p = 0.941		R2 = 0.032, p = 0.194
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
4	14.749 a	12.977–16.763	3.965 a	3.263–4.817	9.829 a	8.573–11.266	0.2 a		0.192 a	0.133–0.278	0.184 a	0.147–0.231	0.072 a	0.045–0.106
5	14.275 a	12.813–15.906	3.697 a	3.147–4.343	9.747 a	8.696–10.924	0.1 a	z = 1.515	0.171 a	0.133–0.219	0.136 b	0.111–0.165	0.058 a	0.043–0.075
St	n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.25		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.45		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.02				n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.19		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 10.24		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.95
	R2 = 0.003, p = 0.631		R2 = 0.0067, p = 0.519		R2 = 0.002, p = 0.904				R2 = 0.0067, p = 0.671		R2 = 0.0825, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0181, p = 0.354
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
4	764.592 a	662.193–874.350	5.342 a	5.203–5.484	7.115 a	6.723–7.507
5	809.564 a	695.387–935.414	5.507 a	5.205–5.825	6.883 a	6.581–7.185
St	n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.30		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.87		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.50
	R2 = 0.0063, p = 0.597		R2 = 0.0152, p = 0.376		R2 = 0.0195, p = 0.499
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group 4: Eimeria-negative growing kids 3–6 months old (n = 20); Group 5: Eimeria-positive growing kids 3–6 months old (n = 30). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI, different ^a and ^b superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count.

Table 7. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches between two groups (Group 4 and 5) of kids with different Eimeria spp. infection status.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
4	19.102 a	18.200–20.049	9.101 a	8.702–9.519	23.743 a	22.381–25.188	12.417 a	11.665–13.217	4.775 a	4.575–4.985	38.333 a	36.938–39.781	29.525 a	28.189–30.925
5	17.973 a	17.141–18.847	8.789 a	8.424–9.170	22.413 a	21.331–23.549	12.460 a	12.005–12.933	4.887 a	4.754–5.024	39.199 a	38.359–40.058	28.593 a	27.740–29.472
St	n = 50, F(1, 9) = 4.43		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 3.15		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 2.60		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.01		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 1.60		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.80		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 1.97
	R2 = 0.062, p = 0.062		R2 = 0.026, p = 0.110		R2 = 0.047, p = 0.141		R2 = 0.0002, p = 0.920		R2 = 0.0197, p = 0.238		R2 = 0.027, p = 0.941		R2 = 0.032, p = 0.194
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
4	14.749 a	12.977–16.763	3.965 a	3.263–4.817	9.829 a	8.573–11.266	0.2 a		0.192 a	0.133–0.278	0.184 a	0.147–0.231	0.072 a	0.045–0.106
5	14.275 a	12.813–15.906	3.697 a	3.147–4.343	9.747 a	8.696–10.924	0.1 a	z = 1.515	0.171 a	0.133–0.219	0.136 b	0.111–0.165	0.058 a	0.043–0.075
St	n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.25		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.45		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.02				n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.19		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 10.24		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.95
	R2 = 0.003, p = 0.631		R2 = 0.0067, p = 0.519		R2 = 0.002, p = 0.904				R2 = 0.0067, p = 0.671		R2 = 0.0825, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0181, p = 0.354
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
4	764.592 a	662.193–874.350	5.342 a	5.203–5.484	7.115 a	6.723–7.507
5	809.564 a	695.387–935.414	5.507 a	5.205–5.825	6.883 a	6.581–7.185
St	n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.30		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.87		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.50
	R2 = 0.0063, p = 0.597		R2 = 0.0152, p = 0.376		R2 = 0.0195, p = 0.499
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group 4: Eimeria-negative growing kids 3–6 months old (n = 20); Group 5: Eimeria-positive growing kids 3–6 months old (n = 30). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI, different ^a and ^b superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count.

Table 8. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches between two groups (Group 6 and 7) of goats with different lungworm infection status.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
6	14.463 a	13.564–14.943	8.207 a	7.894–8.587	22.077 a	21.108–23.090	15.511 a	15.037–15.998	5.760 a	5.603–5.921	37.178 a	36.520–37.847	24.781 a	24.205–25.370
7	13.509 b	13.098–13.933	8.125 a	7.903–8.354	21.318 a	20.667–21.990	15.781 a	15.471–16.098	6.017 b	5.911–6.125	38.146 a	37.611–38.688	23.632 b	23.152–24.121
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.36		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.14		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.58		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.92		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 8.29		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.21		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 7.93
	R2 = 0.024, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0011, p = 0.719		R2 = 0.0114, p = 0.142		R2 = 0.0068, p = 0.362		R2 = 0.049, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0321, p = 0.171		R2 = 0.0539, p ≤ 0.05
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
6	9.658 a	8.778–10.626	4.393 a	3.768–5.122	4.145 a	3.687–4.659	0.200 a		0.223 a	0.180–0.276	0.059 a	0.051–0.068	0.022 a	0.018–0.026
7	9.394 a	8.909–9.904	3.489 b **	3.143–3.874	4.849 b	4.552–5.167	0.150 a	z = 1.523	0.269 a	0.228–0.318	0.066 a	0.060–0.074	0.025 a	0.022–0.027
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.10		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 10.89		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 6.90				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.66		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.67		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.14
	R2 = 0.008, p = 0.305		R2 = 0.0417, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.043, p ≤ 0.05				R2 = 0.0125, p = 0.229		R2 = 0.012, p = 0.088		R2 = 0.0328, p = 0.110
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
6	412.245 a	309.940–446.747	7.053 a	6.605–7.530	7.703 a	7.409–7.998
7	421.991 a	369.911–481.403	7.416 a	7.021–7.834	6.907 a	7.671–8.143
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 01.83		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.03		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.58
	R2 = 0.0091, p = 0.209		R2 = 0.0087, p = 0.188		R2 = 0.0075, p = 0.455
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group 6: Lungworm-negative adult goats (n = 54); Group 7: Lungworm-positive adult goats (n = 96). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the recommended uRI; different ^a and ^b superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count; ** indicates statistical difference at p ≤ 0.001.

Table 8. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches between two groups (Group 6 and 7) of goats with different lungworm infection status.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
6	14.463 a	13.564–14.943	8.207 a	7.894–8.587	22.077 a	21.108–23.090	15.511 a	15.037–15.998	5.760 a	5.603–5.921	37.178 a	36.520–37.847	24.781 a	24.205–25.370
7	13.509 b	13.098–13.933	8.125 a	7.903–8.354	21.318 a	20.667–21.990	15.781 a	15.471–16.098	6.017 b	5.911–6.125	38.146 a	37.611–38.688	23.632 b	23.152–24.121
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.36		n = 50, F(1, 9) = 0.14		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.58		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.92		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 8.29		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.21		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 7.93
	R2 = 0.024, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0011, p = 0.719		R2 = 0.0114, p = 0.142		R2 = 0.0068, p = 0.362		R2 = 0.049, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0321, p = 0.171		R2 = 0.0539, p ≤ 0.05
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
6	9.658 a	8.778–10.626	4.393 a	3.768–5.122	4.145 a	3.687–4.659	0.200 a		0.223 a	0.180–0.276	0.059 a	0.051–0.068	0.022 a	0.018–0.026
7	9.394 a	8.909–9.904	3.489 b **	3.143–3.874	4.849 b	4.552–5.167	0.150 a	z = 1.523	0.269 a	0.228–0.318	0.066 a	0.060–0.074	0.025 a	0.022–0.027
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.10		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 10.89		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 6.90				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.66		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.67		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.14
	R2 = 0.008, p = 0.305		R2 = 0.0417, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.043, p ≤ 0.05				R2 = 0.0125, p = 0.229		R2 = 0.012, p = 0.088		R2 = 0.0328, p = 0.110
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
6	412.245 a	309.940–446.747	7.053 a	6.605–7.530	7.703 a	7.409–7.998
7	421.991 a	369.911–481.403	7.416 a	7.021–7.834	6.907 a	7.671–8.143
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 01.83		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.03		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.58
	R2 = 0.0091, p = 0.209		R2 = 0.0087, p = 0.188		R2 = 0.0075, p = 0.455
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group 6: Lungworm-negative adult goats (n = 54); Group 7: Lungworm-positive adult goats (n = 96). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the recommended uRI; different ^a and ^b superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count; ** indicates statistical difference at p ≤ 0.001.

Table 9. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches among three groups (Group A, B and C) of goats with different ages.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
A	18.417 a **	17.795–19.060	8.913 a	8.645–9.188	22.936 a	22.092–23.811	12.443 a **	12.049–12.850	4.842 a **	4.731–4.955	38.850 a	38.113–39.602	28.962 a **	28.238–29.705
B	12.933 b	12.421–13.467	7.673 b **	7.383–7.974	20.093 b **	19.305–20.913	15.527 b	15.052–16.016	5.929 b	5.756–6.106	38.192 a	37.332–39.073	23.794 b	23.2360–24.366
C	14.396 c	13.758–15.064	8.331 a	8.019–8.656	22.111 a	21.161–23.103	15.367 c	14.899–15.849	5.786 c	5.637–5.939	37.685 b	37.049–38.331	24.084 c	23.273–24.924
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 57.3		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 13.15		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 9.38		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 156.09		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 218.57		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.86		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 38.51
	R2 = 0.5264, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.1935, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.1350, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.4655, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.4910, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0316, p = 0.061		R2 = 0.4567, p ≤ 0.001
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95%CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
A	14.463 a **	13.354–15.665	3.802 a	3.372–4.287	9.779 a **	8.988–10.640	0.150 a	z (A,B) = 1.257	0.179 a	0.146–0.219	0.153 a **	0.132–0.178	0.064 a **	0.050–0.079
B	8.841 b	8.221–9.507	3.755 a	3.265–4.318	4.095 b	3.687–4.5483	0.100 a	z (A,C) = −0.317	0.213 a	0.173–0.264	0.056 b	0.0488–0.063	0.019 b	0.014–0.025
C	9.762 c	8.918–10.685	3.425 a	2.896–4.050	5.233 c	4.737–5.782	0.200 a	z (B,C) = −1.381	0.290 b **	0.225–0.373	0.076 c	0.066–0.087	0.025 c	0.023–0.030
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 53.50		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.55		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 327.40				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.84		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 135.92		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 150
	R2 = 0.3604, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0086, p = 0.594		R2 = 0.5419, p ≤ 0.001				R2 = 0.0608, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.4320, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.2908, p ≤ 0.001
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
A	791.421 a **	713.366–873.526	5.440 a **	5.255–5.632	6.976 a	6.743–7.209
B	435.104 b	362.623–522.072	7.044 b	6.536–7.592	7.872 b	7.595–8.158
C	397.377 c	327.799–481.724	7.230 b	6.708–7.793	7.759 b	7.540–7.984
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 17.82		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 49.10		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.33
	R2 = 0.2215, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.2468, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.1156, p ≤ 0.05
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group A: Growing kids aged between 3 and 6 months old (n = 50); Group B: Lactating non-pregnant adult goats aged >3 years old (n = 50); Group C: Lactating non-pregnant adult goats aged ≤ 3 years old (n = 50). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI; different ^{a, b} and ^c superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count; ** indicates statistical difference at p ≤ 0.001.

Table 9. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches among three groups (Group A, B and C) of goats with different ages.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
A	18.417 a **	17.795–19.060	8.913 a	8.645–9.188	22.936 a	22.092–23.811	12.443 a **	12.049–12.850	4.842 a **	4.731–4.955	38.850 a	38.113–39.602	28.962 a **	28.238–29.705
B	12.933 b	12.421–13.467	7.673 b **	7.383–7.974	20.093 b **	19.305–20.913	15.527 b	15.052–16.016	5.929 b	5.756–6.106	38.192 a	37.332–39.073	23.794 b	23.2360–24.366
C	14.396 c	13.758–15.064	8.331 a	8.019–8.656	22.111 a	21.161–23.103	15.367 c	14.899–15.849	5.786 c	5.637–5.939	37.685 b	37.049–38.331	24.084 c	23.273–24.924
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 57.3		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 13.15		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 9.38		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 156.09		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 218.57		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 3.86		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 38.51
	R2 = 0.5264, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.1935, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.1350, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.4655, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.4910, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0316, p = 0.061		R2 = 0.4567, p ≤ 0.001
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95%CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
A	14.463 a **	13.354–15.665	3.802 a	3.372–4.287	9.779 a **	8.988–10.640	0.150 a	z (A,B) = 1.257	0.179 a	0.146–0.219	0.153 a **	0.132–0.178	0.064 a **	0.050–0.079
B	8.841 b	8.221–9.507	3.755 a	3.265–4.318	4.095 b	3.687–4.5483	0.100 a	z (A,C) = −0.317	0.213 a	0.173–0.264	0.056 b	0.0488–0.063	0.019 b	0.014–0.025
C	9.762 c	8.918–10.685	3.425 a	2.896–4.050	5.233 c	4.737–5.782	0.200 a	z (B,C) = −1.381	0.290 b **	0.225–0.373	0.076 c	0.066–0.087	0.025 c	0.023–0.030
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 53.50		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.55		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 327.40				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.84		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 135.92		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 150
	R2 = 0.3604, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0086, p = 0.594		R2 = 0.5419, p ≤ 0.001				R2 = 0.0608, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.4320, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.2908, p ≤ 0.001
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
A	791.421 a **	713.366–873.526	5.440 a **	5.255–5.632	6.976 a	6.743–7.209
B	435.104 b	362.623–522.072	7.044 b	6.536–7.592	7.872 b	7.595–8.158
C	397.377 c	327.799–481.724	7.230 b	6.708–7.793	7.759 b	7.540–7.984
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 17.82		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 49.10		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.33
	R2 = 0.2215, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.2468, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.1156, p ≤ 0.05
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group A: Growing kids aged between 3 and 6 months old (n = 50); Group B: Lactating non-pregnant adult goats aged >3 years old (n = 50); Group C: Lactating non-pregnant adult goats aged ≤ 3 years old (n = 50). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI; different ^{a, b} and ^c superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count; ** indicates statistical difference at p ≤ 0.001.

Table 10. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches between two groups (Group I and II) of adult goats at different reproductive stages.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
I	14.014 a	13.354–14.708	8.483 a **	8.117–8.865	22.646 a **	21.676–23.661	16.169 a	15.776–16.571	6.059 a	5.914–6.206	37.510 a	36.816–38.216	24.242 a	23.643–24.857
II	13.645 a	13.219–14.084	7.995 b	7.776–8.221	21.078 b	20.441–21.735	15.446 a	15.117–15.783	5.859 a	5.744–5.972	37.938 a	37.409–38.474	23.939 a	23.453–24.435
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.06		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 11.89		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 12.42		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.93		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.67		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.66		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.91
	R2 = 0.0060, p = 0.185		R2 = 0.359, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0464, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0434, p = 0.121		R2 = 0.0284, p = 0.136		R2 = 0.0060, p = 0.436		R2 = 0.0037, p = 0.365
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
I	9.898 a	9.085–10.782	4.239 a	3.645–4.928	4.492 a	4.079–4.947	0.300 a **		0.258 a	0.207–0.322	0.062 a	0.053–0.073	0.026 a	0.021–0.031
II	9.290 a	8.768–9.843	3.586 b	3.220–3.993	4.629 a	4.294–4.991	0.100 b	z = -3.254	0.248 a	0.211–0.293	0.065 a	0.059–0.072	0.022 a	0.018–0.026
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.49		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.91		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.46				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.08		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.06		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.07
	R2 = 0.0103, p = 0.149		R2 = 0.0213, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0015, p = 0.516				R2 = 0.0005, p = 0.786		R2 = 0.0060, p = 0.185		R2 = 0.0094, p = 0.327
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
I	416.313 a	353.095–484.736	7.586 a	7.060–8.152	7.858 a	7.548–8.181
II	459.448 a	406.204–515.969	7.136 a	6.774–7.518	7.784 a	7.553–8.015
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.51		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.49		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.75
	R2 = 0.0062, p = 0.250		R2 = 0.0123, p = 0.148		R2 = 0.0039, p = 0.407
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group I: non-lactating pregnant adult goats (n = 50); Group II: Lactating non-pregnant adult goats (n = 100). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI; different ^a and ^b superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count; ** indicates statistical difference at p ≤ 0.001.

Table 10. Values of the complete blood count and relative statistical approaches between two groups (Group I and II) of adult goats at different reproductive stages.

	Red Blood Cells		Hemoglobin		Hematocrit		Mean Corpuscular Volume		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin		Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration		Red Cell Distribution Width
Group	(106/μL)		(g/dL)		(%)		(fL)		(pg)		(g/dL)		(%)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI
I	14.014 a	13.354–14.708	8.483 a **	8.117–8.865	22.646 a **	21.676–23.661	16.169 a	15.776–16.571	6.059 a	5.914–6.206	37.510 a	36.816–38.216	24.242 a	23.643–24.857
II	13.645 a	13.219–14.084	7.995 b	7.776–8.221	21.078 b	20.441–21.735	15.446 a	15.117–15.783	5.859 a	5.744–5.972	37.938 a	37.409–38.474	23.939 a	23.453–24.435
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.06		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 11.89		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 12.42		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.93		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.67		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.66		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.91
	R2 = 0.0060, p = 0.185		R2 = 0.359, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0464, p ≤ 0.001		R2 = 0.0434, p = 0.121		R2 = 0.0284, p = 0.136		R2 = 0.0060, p = 0.436		R2 = 0.0037, p = 0.365
uRI	11.5–21.0		8.2–12.4		23.0–36.0		15.0–23.0		5.5–8.0		32.5–38.0		21.0–28.0
	White Blood Cells		Neutrophils		Lymphocytes		Monocytes *		Eosinophils		Basophils		Large Unstained Cells
Group	(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)		(103/μL)
	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	Median	z	GM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	SQM	95% CI
I	9.898 a	9.085–10.782	4.239 a	3.645–4.928	4.492 a	4.079–4.947	0.300 a **		0.258 a	0.207–0.322	0.062 a	0.053–0.073	0.026 a	0.021–0.031
II	9.290 a	8.768–9.843	3.586 b	3.220–3.993	4.629 a	4.294–4.991	0.100 b	z = -3.254	0.248 a	0.211–0.293	0.065 a	0.059–0.072	0.022 a	0.018–0.026
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.49		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 5.91		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.46				n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.08		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.06		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.07
	R2 = 0.0103, p = 0.149		R2 = 0.0213, p ≤ 0.05		R2 = 0.0015, p = 0.516				R2 = 0.0005, p = 0.786		R2 = 0.0060, p = 0.185		R2 = 0.0094, p = 0.327
uRI	5.0–17.0		0.7–7.6		2.5–12.0		0.07–0.57		0.0–2.0		0.0–0.25		N/A
	Platelets		Mean Platelets Volume		Total Proteins
Group	(103/μL)		(fL)		(g/dL)
	SQM	95% CI	GM	95% CI	AM	95% CI
I	416.313 a	353.095–484.736	7.586 a	7.060–8.152	7.858 a	7.548–8.181
II	459.448 a	406.204–515.969	7.136 a	6.774–7.518	7.784 a	7.553–8.015
St	n = 150, F(1, 9) = 1.51		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 2.49		n = 150, F(1, 9) = 0.75
	R2 = 0.0062, p = 0.250		R2 = 0.0123, p = 0.148		R2 = 0.0039, p = 0.407
uRI	340.0–900.0		3.7–7.1		6.0–8.0

GM: Geometric mean; AM: Arithmetic mean; SQM: Square transformation of the mean; CI: Confidence interval; St: Statistical approach including all groups; uRI: Reference intervals for goats recommended by U.C. Davis [48]. * indicates non-parametric statistical approach. Group I: non-lactating pregnant adult goats (n = 50); Group II: Lactating non-pregnant adult goats (n = 100). Numbers in red color indicate geometric means below or above the uRI; different ^a and ^b superscripts indicate statistical (p ≤ 0.05) differences in each parameter of the complete blood count; ** indicates statistical difference at p ≤ 0.001.

4. Discussion

4.1. Preamble

The present study aimed to establish RIs for CBC and TP in clinically healthy goats of the indigenous Greek Capra prisca breed managed under semi-intensive conditions, and to evaluate their associations with parasitic burden, age, and reproductive stage.

The CBC comprises parameters which, depending on the cellular lineage they pertain to, are divided into three main categories. The first category includes seven erythrocytic parameters (i.e., RBC, HGB, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC and RDW), the second category includes seven leukocytic parameters (i.e., WBC including NEUT, LYM, MONO, EOS, BASO, and LUC), and the third one comprises two megakaryocytic parameters (i.e., PLT and MPV). Among them, the most commonly evaluated parameters at flock level in small ruminants are HCT, HGB, RBC, WBC, NEUT, LYM, EOS, and PLT. Assessing these parameters helps gauge the animal’s overall condition [2].

Several factors can influence the results of CBC, potentially leading to misleading interpretations. These factors fall into two categories: (a) sampling-related factors and (b) animal- and management-related ones [7,8]. Sampling-related factors include the blood collection technique; namely, the choice of needle gauge, the blood-to-anticoagulant ratio, the speed of collection and mixing, the storage and preservation of samples, and the transport time to the laboratory. Animal-related factors encompass restraint method applied, age and its effect on immune function, nutrition, altitude, management system, underlying pathological conditions, sex, and reproductive stage, as well as parasitic burden [7,8].

In the present study, efforts were made to minimize the impact of sampling-related factors. For this reason, EDTA was used as the anticoagulant of choice for studying blood cell counts [49,50]. Tubes were filled up to their recommended capacity to ensure the correct blood-to-anticoagulant ratio and sampling was performed with 21 G needles to prevent hemolysis. Animal restraint techniques were designed to minimized stress, avoiding splenic contraction and false increase in hematocrit values [20,51,52]. All participating farms followed a semi-intensive management system with comparable husbandry and feeding protocols. Finally, blood samples were taken from clinically healthy female goats, as confirmed by their clinical examinations prior to sampling.

4.2. Evaluation of the Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells in all animals across the experimental groups remained within the reference range established in the international literature [48].

According to our statistical analysis, GIN burden, as measured by FEC, significantly influenced RBCs. A notable reduction in RBCs was observed when FEC exceeded 300 EPG, consistent with the findings of Misra et al. [53], who observed reduced erythrocyte counts in goats infected with GIN. In our study, the most impactful GIN species associated with reduced RBCs in heavily infected goats was Haemonchus spp., corroborating the findings of Mir et al. [30] and Yacob et al. [35]. This RBC decrease was attributed to (i) the blood-sucking activity of Haemonchus spp. [30,54] and (ii) the blood loss at the sites of parasite attachment, due to extensive tissue damage caused by these helminths [30,32,55].

By comparison, lungworm infection in goats does not provoke or provokes a mild decrease in RBCs. More pronounced reductions are generally observed only in very heavy or complicated (i.e., secondary bacterial infection) cases of Dictyocaulus spp. infection [56,57]. In our study, however, lungworm-infected goats exhibited a significant drop in RBCs compared to uninfected controls. This finding may be explained by the fact that lungworms do not feed directly on RBCs. Rather, RBC reductions are usually indirect, resulting from (i) chronic inflammation (i.e., anemia of chronic disease) and (ii) minimal hemorrhage at the sites of parasite-induced tissue damage [56,57]. Sustained pulmonary inflammation may subtly suppress erythropoiesis, leading to normocytic or microcytic, hypochromic changes, as seen in chronic protostrongylidosis of sheep. Moreover, in severe dictyocaulosis, small focal hemorrhages of the bronchial mucosa may contribute to minor reductions in RBCs [57].

Age influenced circulating erythrocytes, with younger animals exhibiting higher RBCs than their older counterparts. This observation aligns with the findings of Nangia et al. [58], Oduye [59], and Piccione et al. [17], yet it contrasts with the reports of Mbassa and Poulsen [14], Daramola et al. [16], and Shaikat et al. [60], who documented higher RBCs in adult goats compared to young ones. Also in a Greek context, a study on dairy sheep by Panousis et al. [2] agreed with our results about the effect of age on RBCs in younger animals. This may be attributed to their rapid post-weaning growth and elevated metabolic demands, which drive a peak in erythropoietin-stimulated marrow activity. During this critical growth stage, bone marrow erythropoiesis is maximized—producing higher RBC counts than seen in neonates (where erythropoiesis is still transitioning from liver to marrow) or in mature adults (where growth-induced erythropoietic stimuli have waned).

Reproductive stage did not affect the RBC count in our study. Similarly, Pospisil et al. [61] reported no differences between pregnant and non-pregnant Cameroon goats, nor did Konyali et al. [62] in Turkish Saanen goats. Tharwat et al. [23] likewise found no significant change in erythrocyte counts between goats three weeks prepartum and three weeks postpartum (i.e., lactating goats), with their mean values closely matching those in the present investigation. The only notable deviation was a drop in RBCs one-week prepartum. In contrast, Azab et al. [24] reported a decrease in erythrocyte numbers during late pregnancy, a finding supported by Biagi et al. [63] and Mbassa and Poulsen [64]. This hemodilution reduces blood viscosity, thereby enhancing placental perfusion through the small-diameter vessels in late gestation and facilitating the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen across the placenta [24,65].

4.3. Evaluation of the Hemoglobin and Hematocrit

Hemoglobin serves as the most direct indicator of oxygen-carrying capacity, with its concentration equating to approximately one-third of the HCT, provided that erythrocytes are of normal size. In our study, the HGB of the participating animals remained at the lower limit of the normal range internationally reported [48]. However, GIN- (>300 EPG) and lungworm-infected adult goats, as well as lactating non-pregnant adults > 3 years old, exhibited HGB values below this lower reference threshold [48]. Concurrently, all HCT measurements, except for those of growing young kids, fell below the established normal reference intervals [48].

Gastrointestinal nematodes, particularly the blood-sucking species, are known to reduce both HGB and HCT during heavy infections in goats [35] and sheep [30,66]. This may explain the low values of HGB and HCT recorded among adult goats in our study, given that Haemonchus spp. was the predominant GIN. Unexpectedly, the zero FEC-goats also had reduced HGB and HCT, suggesting an intrinsic tendency of this indigenous dairy breed to maintain hematologic parameters around the lower end of the normal range. A similar hypothesis was proposed by Smith et al. [67], who noted that dairy goat breeds (e.g., Nubian and Alpine) often present HCT values at the lower limit of the normal range compared to meat-producing breeds.

Age exerted a significant, age-dependent effect on HGB and HCT in our Capra prisca goats. To be precise, both parameters showed a decreasing trend as the animals aged, in agreement with Zumbo et al. [68]. On the contrary, Mbassa and Poulsen [14] and Shaikat et al. [60] reported that HGB and HCT reached their lowest values in young animals and increased with advancing age. Notably, Piccione et al. [17], studying Girgentana goats, recorded HGB and HCT values higher than those observed in our study. This discrepancy may reflect differences in management practices, particularly in nutrition, between the two breeds [17].

Azab et al. [24] reported a decrease in HGB two weeks postpartum compared to prepartum values, a result consistent with our findings. However, Tharwat et al. [23] recorded no change in HGB between late gestation and early lactation in goats. In our study, non-pregnant does in their lactation period exhibited lower HCT than pregnant, non-lactating ones. In agreement with our results, Azab et al. [24] observed a gradual decline in HCT up to parturition and into early lactation. Focusing on the transition period, Tharwat et al. [23] documented a drop in HCT beginning two weeks prepartum and persisting through parturition, while Waziri et al. [12] found no significant difference in HCT when comparing pregnant and lactating goats.

4.4. Evaluation of the Mean Corpuscular Volume

The MCV values recorded were within the normal range according to international reference values [48], apart from the respective values of growing kids 3–6 months old, infected or not with Eimeria spp.

It is commonly accepted that when GIN infection exceeds 300 EPG, MCV increases as the bone marrow responds to parasite-induced blood loss (i.e., reduced RBC and HCT) by releasing larger, immature erythrocytes into circulation, a hallmark of regenerative activity [20]. To our surprise, different GIN burdens did not affect significantly MCV values in our study.

Age affected MCV in our study, with a clear difference between young growing kids 3–6 months old and adult goats. Specifically, MCV values were the lowest among young kids compared to adults and increased with age. Confirming our results, Piccione et al. [17] reported a similar age-related tendency in MCV, albeit at higher absolute values. Contradictory to our results, Mbassa and Poulsen [14,69] recorded the highest MCV in neonates, attributing these to the presence of fetal hemoglobin [13,69].

Reproductive stage did not affect MCV in our study, which is consistent with Waziri et al. [12] but in contrast to Sandabe and Yahi [25], who reported a significant decrease in MCV in pregnant goats of the Sahel breed. Additionally, Azab et al. [24] and Mbassa and Poulsen [64] concluded that MCV increased during late gestation, then decreased immediately postpartum and remained lower throughout the subsequent lactation period.

4.5. Evaluation of the Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin and Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration

The exclusive determination of HGB concentration has limited diagnostic value in ruminants, unless used to calculate MCH and MCHC per erythrocyte [6]. An elevated MCH is typically associated with either reticulocytosis or hemolysis, whereas a reduced MCH is indicative of iron deficiency. MCHC, the most accurate indicator of erythrocyte hemoglobin status, may be increased in hemolysis or decreased with reticulocytosis or iron-deficiency anemia. Altitude can also affect these erythrocytic parameters. More precisely, chronic hypoxia at high altitude (i.e., reduced atmospheric oxygen level) stimulates erythrocytes to accumulate more HGB, resulting in higher MCH and MCHC values [4]. In the present study, however, all samplings were performed in lowland areas, eliminating altitude as a confounder.

The MCH values were within the normal range according to international reference intervals [48], except in growing kids 3–6 months old, infected or not with Eimeria spp. Controversially, MCHC values approached or exceeded the upper normal reference limit in some groups [48].

When gastrointestinal parasitism, particularly by Haemonchus spp., exceeds 300 EPG, the ensuing blood loss stimulates erythrocytes to accumulate more HGB to maintain systemic oxygen homeostasis, thereby increasing MCH. This observation is consistent with our findings. In addition, the elevated MCHC seen in adult goats infected with >300 EPG likely reflects the chronicity of the parasitic infection.

Regarding age-related effects on these parameters, MCH increased with age, whereas MCHC decreased in middle-aged (i.e., ≤3 years old) lactating non-pregnant does. Controversially, Mbassa and Poulsen [14] observed higher MCH in young animals compared to adults, while Pospisil et al. [61] and Piccione et al. [17] reported no age-related changes in MCH or MCHC.

According to our data output, reproductive stage had no effect on either parameter, in agreement with Waziri et al. [12] and Konyali et al. [62]. Similarly, Tharwat et al. [23] found no changes in MCH or MCHC during the transition period (3 weeks prepartum to 3 weeks postpartum). Azab et al. [24] confirmed stable MCHC values throughout the transition period but noted elevated MCH from three weeks to one week prepartum in Baladi goats.

4.6. Evaluation of the Red Cell Distribution Width

Red cell distribution width is not widely documented in the literature, as it is not calculated by all automated hematology analyzers. RDW represents the coefficient of variation in erythrocyte volume and indicates anisocytosis. It is calculated as RDW (%) = 100 × (RBC volume histogram/MCV), reflecting its dependence on both RBC and MCV.

In our study, RDW was recorded within the normal range [48], apart from the respective values of growing kids 3–6 months old, infected or not with Eimeria spp. GIN infection did not alter RDW values among adult goats, despite measurable changes in RBC count, perhaps reflecting a chronic parasitism. Expected age-related effects on RDW were also observed following age-related changes in both RBC and MCV; RBC decreased and MCV increased with advancing age. In contrast, Piccione et al. [17] reported no significant age-related differences in RDW among Girgentana goats. Finally, reproductive stage had no impact on RDW, mirroring the lack of effect on RBC and MCV.

4.7. Evaluation of the White Blood Cells

White blood cells remained within the physiological range across all groups, as defined in the literature [48]. However, there was a clear difference among age-related groups, as young animals reached the upper normal limit, whereas adults were near the lower normal limit.

To our surprise, no significant association was recorded between gastrointestinal or pulmonary nematode or Eimeria spp. infection and WBC count. This unexpected finding may reflect the increased genetic resistance of this indigenous goat breed against various pathogens, including protozoa and metazoa. Mir et al. [30] reported lower WBC in Haemonchus contortus-infected sheep compared to parasite-free controls, likely due to blood loss.

Our statistical analysis revealed significant age-related differences in WBC, mainly reflecting higher WBC counts in young animals compared to adults, in agreement with Nettleton and Beckett [70], Earl and Carranza [71], and Upadhyay and Rao [72]. In contrast, Piccione et al. [17] observed no differences in leukocyte counts among adult goats, while Pospisil et al. [61], who set 24 months as the age cut-off, reported lower WBC counts in young animals and an age-related increase pattern of this leukocytic parameter. Conversely, Mbassa and Poulsen [14] and Shaikat et al. [60] reported that leukocyte counts increased with advancing age.

No differences were found in WBC count among adult goats at different reproductive stages. Likewise, Tharwat et al. [23] reported no effect of reproductive stage on this parameter. In contrast, Waziri et al. [12] found a significant rise in WBC count from the 16th to 20th week of gestation, an observation in line with Fortagne and Schafer [73] and Sandabe and Yahi [25], who described increased leukocyte counts in late pregnancy in Sahel goats. This leukocytosis, linked to the impending parturition, is attributed to increased bone-marrow activity accompanied by the physiological stress of pregnancy.

Unlike total WBC count, differential leukocyte counts and their values, as described below, are far more informative for diagnosing diseases in small ruminants [74].

4.8. Evaluation of the Neutrophils

Neutrophils in our Capra prisca indigenous goats remained within the universal recommended normal range [48].

Both gastrointestinal and pulmonary parasitic infections produced detectable differences in NEUT. Specifically, adult goats shedding more than 300 EPG exhibited the lowest NEUT, while non-parasitized animals recorded the highest ones. Although NEUT fluctuations are typically linked to bacterial, viral or fungal inflammation [75], severe parasitism may induce immunosuppression, predisposing animals to opportunistic microbial infections carried by parasites into the host [67].

No age-related differences in NEUT were observed in our study. As noted by Byers and Kramer [9], NEUT predominate among leukocytes in young small ruminants, especially during their first two weeks of life. This may explain why our 3–6 months old kids showed NEUT counts similar to those of adult goats. This aligns with Piccione et al. [17], who studied adult goats older than one year and found no age effect on NEUT.

Pregnant does in late gestation recorded higher NEUT counts compared to non-pregnant ones. Leukocytosis with neutrophilia has been documented during parturition [12,24], and NEUT remained elevated throughout the transition period, particularly during the first week postpartum [23].

4.9. Evaluation of the Lymphocytes

Lymphocyte counts in our goats perfectly matched the universal reference intervals [48].

Parasitic burden, both gastrointestinal helminths and lungworms, affected LYM values in our study. To be precise, parasitized adult goats recorded higher LYM values compared to non-parasitized ones. In agreement with our results, Mir et al. [30] observed lymphocytosis in Haemonchus contortus-infected sheep due to host responses against parasite excretory–secretory products. However, Addah and Yakubu [21] reported lymphopenia in semi-intensively (prone to parasitism) reared Djallonke sheep and identified an inverse correlation between LYM and FEC.

Age significantly influenced LYM, as follows: young growing kids exhibited the highest LYM counts, compared to adults, with a gradual decrease in their number with advancing age. Numerous studies have marked three months of age as the peak for LYM expansion in ruminants, followed by a gradual age-related decline [9,58,64,76]. In contrast to our results, Mbassa and Poulsen [14] and Piccione et al. [17] supported that LYM stabilized after one year of age.

Reproductive stage did not affect LYM in our study, echoing findings in Cameroon and Sahel breeds [12,61]. According to Azab et al. [24], parturition was marked by lymphopenia in goats, attributed to increased corticosteroid secretion.

4.10. Evaluation of the Monocytes

Monocyte values remained within the established reference intervals [48] in all animal groups. Monocytes contribute mainly to phagocytic and immune processes. Therefore, elevated counts occur in chronic inflammation, hemolysis, necrosis, or stress, whereas hemolytic and endotoxemic conditions cause monocytopenia [7].

In our study, monocytes were not significantly affected by either parasitic burden or age. However, reproductive stage had a marked effect: pregnant does recorded higher MONO values compared to non-pregnant does. Tharwat et al. [23] similarly reported a a significant decrease in MONO counts during the second and third week postpartum, while Waziri et al. [12] found no difference in MONO counts between pregnant and non-pregnant does.

4.11. Evaluation of the Eosinophils

All eosinophil counts in our study fell within the international reference range [48].

It is generally accepted that eosinophils play a key role in anti-helminth immunity and are strongly correlated with host resistance against parasites [35,77]. This correlation is further supported by positive associations between eosinophilia and Haemonchus contortus [30,35] or Strongylidae/Strongyloides spp. [21] infection in goats and sheep. However, in our study, major parasites such as GIN, Eimeria spp., and lungworms did not significantly influence EOS counts.

Age significantly affected EOS, with the highest values recorded among adult lactating goats under 3 years of age. This finding confirms previous work performed by Piccione et al. [17], who noted higher EOS in 1–2 years old goats compared to those aged 3–4 years old, possibly reflecting age-related changes in the immune responses [18]. On the contrary, Mbassa and Poulsen [14] did not record age-related differences in EOS counts among goats.

Reproductive stage-related alterations in EOS count were not recorded in our study. At the same frame, Pospisil et al. [61] and Tharwat et al. [23] did not find differences in EOS count between pregnant and non-pregnant Cameroon breed goats. According to Azab et al. [24], parturition induces eosinopenia due to increased excretion of corticosteroids in both goats and sheep. Finally, Panousis et al. [2] recorded a lower EOS count in pregnant dairy sheep compared to non-pregnant ones, disagreeing with our results.

4.12. Evaluation of the Basophils

Basophils are rarely detected in blood circulation and, thus, are unreliable diagnostic markers. Marked basophilia is unusual and typically linked to allergic or inflammatory reactions, often alongside eosinophilia [7]. All BASO counts in our study remained within the recommended reference intervals [48].

Eimeria spp. infection exclusively influenced BASO counts among growing kids 3–6 months old, reducing them. Published research on caprine coccidiosis has shown that BASO counts remained largely unchanged during Eimeria infection in growing kids. In a controlled experimental infection with Eimeria christenseni, hematological analyses showed only a slight, non-significant increase in BASO counts in infected kids compared to controls, and all values remained within the normal reference ranges [78]. In other words, while there may have been a minor rise in circulating basophils during acute Eimeria challenge, these changes remained within expected limits and therefore could not be considered reliable markers of infection or disease severity in kids.

Age also affected BASO count in our study. More precisely, young growing kids recorded higher BASO counts than adult goats. This result mirrors the findings of Piccione et al. [17] in Girgentana does older than one year [17]. Finally, reproductive stage had no effect on this leukocytic parameter, further confirming the conclusions by Tharwat et al. [23] and Waziri et al. [12], who did not record BASO differences during the transition period in goats.

4.13. Evaluation of the Platelets

Platelets remained within the normal international reference intervals [48].

Research in experimentally infected goats (using Haemonchus contortus, a major gastrointestinal nematode) demonstrated a clear inverse relationship between parasitic burden and circulating blood PLT [79]. In one study, goats inoculated with H. contortus exhibited a progressive drop in PLT (i.e., thrombocytopenia) as infection intensified. This indicated that higher FECs were associated with lower PLT [79]. To our surprise, this finding was not confirmed in our study, since PLT counts remained unaffected by the different gastrointestinal or pulmonary helminths or Eimeria spp. infection status. This may be attributed to the genetic resistance of this indigenous goat breed to parasitic challenges.

It is well established that young ruminants have significantly higher PLT counts [20]. This explains why our young kids had higher PLT values than adults. Similarly, Panousis et al. [2] concluded that young lambs had higher circulating PLT counts than adult ewes. Finally, the reproductive stage had no effect on PLT count in this study, in agreement with previous studies in dairy sheep [2].

4.14. Evaluation of the Mean Platelet Volume

Mean platelet volume is a parameter related to platelet size, and it reflects regenerative activity. Giant platelets or sprouting platelets called “pseudopods” arise from recent proliferation of megakaryocyte progenitor cells [80], resulting in a physiological increase in MPV. In our study, all MPV values of adult goats exceeded the upper normal limit, whereas MPV values in young kids remained within the normal reference ranges [48].

Currently, there is a lack of peer-reviewed studies directly examining MPV in relation to GIN burden in goats. However, evidence from experimentally Haemonchus contortus-infected goats reported a decrease in PLT, accompanied by a compensatory increase in MPV—reflecting the release of larger, younger platelets from the bone marrow to maintain hemostasis [79]. Similarly, a study on indigenous Kerio Valley sheep in Kenya reported significantly higher MPV in GIN-infected animals compared to uninfected controls [81]. However, these findings were not conformed in our study, as MPV remained unaffected by infections with gastrointestinal or pulmonary helminths, as well as Eimeria spp.

As previously described in our study, young kids had a significantly lower MPV than adult goats, indicating an age-related pattern. On the contrary, in an Alpine goat study, animals were divided into four age groups (i.e., <1 year, 1–3 years, 3–5 years, and >5 years) and the MPV remained essentially stable across all ages [82]. Furthermore, in Hair goats, researchers evaluated multiple hematological parameters in 6-month-old and 1–3-year--old animals of both sexes and reported that MPV was not significantly associated with age [83].

Finally, reproductive stage had no effect on MPV in our study, in agreement with other goat studies. In Danish Landrace goats, no significant differences in MPV were noted among non-pregnant lactating, early or late pregnant, and pregnant lactating groups [84]. Likewise, cattle studies (comparing heifers to pregnant cows up to 50 days of gestation) found no significant changes in MPV with advancing gestation [85].

4.15. Evaluation of the Total Proteins

The total protein concentration in our study remained within the normal international range [48].

Statistical analysis revealed that parasitic burden did not affect TP values in our study. It is widely accepted that increased TP (i.e., hyperproteinemia) occurs in dehydrated ruminants, particularly those suffering from diarrhea of either parasitic, bacterial, or viral origin, while blood loss (e.g., parasite-induced hematophagy) or reduced protein intake leads to reduced TP (i.e., hypoproteinemia) [30,35].

We observed an age-related difference in TP, since kids 3–6 months old had lower TP values than adults. Likewise, Piccione et al. [17] reported a positive relationship between TP and age, whereas Shaikat et al. [60] described an inverse association.

No differences were found in TP between pregnant and non-pregnant does in our findings. However, Tharwat et al. [23] noted elevated TP postpartum. This finding was attributed to increased globulin production due to immunoglobulin synthesis from these fresh-born goats. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that decreased TP may occur during the transition period. This is linked with possible periparturient hepatic dysfunction (i.e., pregnancy toxemia), which leads to reduced protein production from the liver and, therefore, lowered plasma TP.

5. Conclusions

This study provides valuable insights into the hematological profile and RI of clinically healthy indigenous Greek goats (Capra prisca), emphasizing the significant effects of parasitic burden, age, and reproductive stage on CBC and TP. GIN infections, particularly those caused by Haemonchus spp., were associated with reductions in RBC. Lungworm infections also affected both erythrocytic and leukocytic parameters. Age significantly affected most hematological parameters, with younger animals displaying higher RBC, WBC, and PLT values compared to adults. Reproductive stage influenced HGB, HCT, NEUT, and MONO counts. Despite these variations, TP remained largely stable across different animal groups, except for showing age-related differences. These findings underscore the necessity of considering physiological and pathological factors when interpreting CBC results in goats and highlight the importance of establishing breed-specific RI. The generated RI offers a reliable diagnostic framework to assess the health of Capra prisca goats, enhancing veterinary management and disease monitoring in Greek small ruminant farming.