Farming Factors’ Influence on Animal Production

The influence of farm factors on animal production is a complex topic, involving a multitude of elements that can impact the health, productivity, and welfare of animals. These factors can be categorized as genetic, environmental, technological, economic, and even socio-political. The interaction among these factors determines the efficiency and sustainability of animal production systems. To optimize productivity, farmers must consider all these influences and adopt integrated approaches that enhance animal health and welfare while maximizing output. Ongoing research and innovation are essential to address emerging challenges and to improve the sustainability of animal production under changing environmental conditions.

Agriculture and animal husbandry are two closely interconnected fields, with agricultural factors directly influencing livestock production. The agricultural sector serves as the primary source of feed for animal husbandry, and both the quantity and quality of agricultural production directly influence the quantity and quality of animal products. The cultivation of plants with low nutritional value, along with the poor management of harvested crops (e.g., inadequate preservation or storage), can result in low-quality feed that fails to meet the nutritional requirements of the animals. Consequently, this leads to reduced yields and a lower quality of animal products (milk, meat, and eggs) [1].

Modern agriculture faces numerous challenges, such as soil degradation caused by intensive farming practices and water scarcity for irrigation. However, climate change represents the most important threat to agricultural output, especially because it cannot be controlled. Climate change can also negatively impact the productivity of farm animals, both directly by altering weather patterns that affect the animals’ ability to adapt to new environmental conditions, and indirectly by reducing the quality of field crops and, consequently, influencing the nutritional value of animal feed. Therefore, it is important for farmers in the agricultural and animal husbandry fields to constantly find new methods to mitigate these adverse effects. Potential solutions could be the development of new crop hybrids that are more resilient to climate change and the implementation of artificial climate control systems for raising and managing farm animals [1,2,3].

The Special Issue “Farming Factors’ Influence on Animal Production” includes 10 articles (six original research papers and four literature reviews). The original research articles explore recent scientific concerns such as the use of sea buckthorn in the diet of laying hens, the digestibility of mulberry leaves in Bombyx mori larvae, the contamination of dairy cow feed with mineral oil hydrocarbons, the mycotoxicological evaluation of compound feeds for broiler chickens, phylogenetic analysis of the Pinzgau bull breed, and a study on how goats’ age and breeding season affect semen quality. The literature reviews address topics such as the impact of grape polyphenols on intestinal health in pigs, the nutritional value of equine meat and milk, nutritional perspectives on hen eggs, and the role of melatonin in both animal and human physiology. As evidenced by the diversity of these topics, the Special Issue covers a wide range of the factors that can influence livestock production, both in terms of quantity and quality. The 10 scientific contributions were developed by a total of 65 researchers from Romania.

Despite the thematic diversity of the papers included in this Special Issue, they are all interconnected through their focus on the broader objective of enhancing animal production by addressing key agricultural factors. Whether investigating nutritional strategies, reproductive efficiency, genetic resources, or functional bioactive compounds, each contribution explores innovative approaches to improving animal performance, health, or sustainability within agricultural systems. Together, these studies provide a comprehensive overview of how diverse yet complementary research areas converge to address the central challenge of optimizing animal production under various environmental and economic pressures.

A study by Usturoi A. et al. [4] investigated the effects of organic sea buckthorn powder supplementation on egg production and quality in Moravian Black hens. The research assessed the impact of the dietary inclusion of organic sea buckthorn powder (Hippophae rhamnoides) on the performance and egg quality of 600 Moravian Black laying hens raised in an open-air system. Three groups were included: a control group fed a standard compound feed specific to this species and category, and two experimental groups whose diets were supplemented with 1% and 2% sea buckthorn powder, respectively. Over an 11- week period, parameters such as egg production, feed intake, and various egg quality traits—including weight, volume, shell thickness, and yolk color—were monitored. Supplementation with 2% sea buckthorn powder significantly improved egg production, egg weight, shell strength, and yolk carotenoid content, while maintaining stable feed intake and negligible mortality. These findings confirm the beneficial effects of sea buckthorn as a natural dietary additive, capable of enhancing productive performance and health status in laying hens. These results also highlight the major potential of sea buckthorn powder in supporting sustainable and higher-quality egg production.

Two of the research articles focused on mycotoxicological and hydrocarbon contamination in farm animal feed. The article “Mycotoxicological evaluation of broiler compound feeds: a multiannual analysis of five mycotoxins in a Romanian compound feed factory” by the research team led by Lăpușneanu D. [5] presents a five-year study on the contamination of compound feeds intended for broiler chickens at all production stages (starter, grower, and finisher). The study targeted five major mycotoxins: total aflatoxins (AFT), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUMs), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN). AFT was detected in 49.3–72.2% of samples, with concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 5.2 µg/kg. DON showed the highest prevalence (77.6–98.9%), with maximum concentrations between 330 and 1740 µg/kg. FUMs were presented in 42.7–87.2% of samples, reaching levels of 460 to 1400 µg/kg. OTA was found in 44.2–87.9% of the samples, with peak concentrations of 21.4 µg/kg. ZEN exhibited consistently high incidence (86.5–97.4%) across all feed stages, with maximum values of up to 89.4 µg/kg. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins was frequently observed, with the most common combination of four mycotoxins identified in 38.51% of the samples. Samples were collected from storage silos, homogenized, and analyzed in certified laboratories. Sampling procedures varied depending on batch size to ensure representativeness. This study highlights the importance of ongoing mycotoxin monitoring to protect animal health and food safety. It also highlights the need to investigate mycotoxin transfer into animal products and the potential combined effects of multiple mycotoxins on animal health, including synergistic or antagonistic interactions.

The second research article addressing the quality of farm animal feed focused on the impact of feed management technologies on mineral oil hydrocarbon (MOH) contamination. This comparative approach at the farm level was conducted by a research team coordinated by Matei M. [6]. The objective was to evaluate the extent of mineral oil hydrocarbon (MOH) contamination in feed and to identify the technological factors contributing to this problem, especially focused on mechanized harvesting and processing. Three dairy farms were selected and classified according to their estimated contamination risk (low, medium, and high). A total of fifteen feed samples were analyzed using coupled liquid chromatography–gas chromatography with the flame ionization detection (LC-GC-FID) method, incorporating a microwave-assisted saponification (MAS) step to quantify the levels of mineral oil saturated (MOSHs) and aromatic hydrocarbons (MOAHs). The study revealed important differences in contamination levels based on the technological development of each farm. The MOSH levels ranged from 11.4 mg/kg to 81.40 mg/kg, while the MOAH levels varied between 0.5 mg/kg and 4.6 mg/kg. MOAHs accounted for 4.74% of the total MOH content. The results demonstrated a clear association between feed production technologies and MOH contamination levels. Factors such as the degree of mechanization, the type and condition of agricultural machinery, and storage conditions appeared to contribute to contamination. Chemical treatments did not show a direct impact, although potential risks were acknowledged. Contamination levels varied among farms, suggesting that some sources may be external to technological factors. The study recommends the implementation of advanced technological solutions and proper maintenance of equipment as key strategies to reduce the risk of MOH contamination in animal feed.

Another noteworthy article presents research on the digestibility of mulberry leaves administered to Bombyx mori larvae. Considering that sericulture is an important branch of animal husbandry—not only for silk production, but also as a valuable source of high-value protein—the research team led by Doliș M.G. [7] considered this investigation to be highly relevant. The study, conducted in the summer of 2021, aimed to assess the nutritional value and digestibility of mulberry leaves from two varieties: the Japanese Kokuso 21 and the Romanian Eforie. These varieties were used as feed for the Romanian Triumf hybrid of Bombyx mori larvae. A total of 600 larvae were divided into two main groups (300 per variety), each subdivided into six replicates of 50 larvae. The larvae were reared in paper trays and grouped according to age and size. The results showed that mulberry leaves had an average digestibility of 54.46%. The aging of the leaves altered their chemical composition, generally reducing nutrient digestibility as the larvae progressed over the growth period, with the exception of crude fiber [8]. Fiber digestibility remained stable in the early larval stages and increased to 26.78% toward the end of the experiment. Overall, the Kokuso 21 variety demonstrated better digestibility parameters than Eforie, suggesting its superior nutritional profile for silkworm feeding. A conclusion of the study was the need for further investigations to evaluate the extent of nutrient metabolism and their conversion efficiency into silk production.

A further research article explored the influence of age and season on specific sperm parameters and reproductive behavior in Carpathian goats. Coordinated by Pascal C. [9], the study investigated how these two factors affect reproductive potential in male Carpathian goats. The animals were divided into three age categories: young (14–23 months; L14), adult (3–4 years; L34), and older bucks (5–6 years; L56). Scrotal biometrics were assessed using a measuring tape, while testicular volume was determined by completely immersing the testicles in a container filled with water and measuring the displaced water. Semen samples were collected and analyzed across all four seasons, with evaluations including ejaculate volume, color, pH, motility, sperm concentration, and morphology. A computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA) system was employed for precise measurements of motility and morphology, and testosterone levels were determined from seasonal blood samples. Sexual behavior was monitored based on mating desire and the male’s response to female presence. Key findings showed that testicular volume was significantly influenced by both age and season, with the most substantial differences observed between the youngest and oldest groups, especially during autumn. Sperm quality—parameters such as ejaculate volume, sperm concentration, and motility—varied seasonally, being lowest in younger goats. Testosterone levels increased with age and peaked in the autumn season. Behavioral observations showed that young males exhibited lower sexual activity, although this improved in autumn as well. Additionally, a strong correlation was found between body weight and testicular volume in adult bucks (R = 0.942, p-value = 0.016 for L34; R = 0.797, p-value = 0.022 for L56), suggesting age-related reproductive development. The study confirms that although Carpathian goats can reproduce year-round, autumn provides optimal conditions for sperm quality and breeding performance. These findings support improvements in breeding strategies tailored to seasonal and age-specific reproductive patterns in temperate continental climates.

The final research paper included in this Special Issue was conducted by a team led by Davidescu M.A. [10], who investigated the genetic diversity and phylogenetic background of the Pinzgau cattle of Transylvania, a local breed currently facing the threat of extinction. This breed represents a valuable genetic resource for biodiversity conservation and for promoting the sustainability of livestock systems, particularly under the increasing pressures of climate change and disease. Animal genetic biodiversity is essential for maintaining the functionality of local food systems and for ensuring sustainable livelihoods. Since 2000, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has highlighted the decline of cattle populations, including the Pinzgau breed of Transylvania, Romania. Known for its resistance, adaptability, disease resistance, and adaptability to environmental stressors, the Transylvanian Pinzgau is considered an important genetic asset for improving livestock productivity. The study focused on the genetic assessment of 24 animals from the Transylvanian region by analyzing two mtDNA markers, cytochrome b and D-loop sequences, both widely recognized for their relevance and importance in studies of genetic diversity and phylogenetic reconstruction in cattle. The findings, obtained through a statistical analysis of nucleotide sequences using specialized software, indicated that the cattle belonged to the ancestral haplogroup T, a lineage tracing back to Bos taurus. These findings underscore the importance of conserving genetic diversity within local breeds and support the development of targeted breeding and crossbreeding programs. Such efforts could improve the genetic base of commercial cattle breeds while contributing to the preservation of agri-biodiversity.

The first article from the literature review group addressed the potential of grape polyphenols as feed additives in pig nutrition, focusing on their chemical structure, bioavailability, and their effects on gut health. The group of authors led by Proca A.C. [11] states the growing interest in natural feed additives following the ban on antibiotic use in animal production. Grapes, as well as by-products derived from the wine industry, including grape marc and seed extracts, are rich in bioactive constituents such as flavonoids, stilbenes, and phenolic acids, which exhibit a wide range of health-promoting properties. The aim of this review was to synthesize the existing knowledge on the impact of grape polyphenols on intestinal health in pigs. The first section of the paper discusses the chemical structure of the major polyphenolic compounds found in grapes, along with their bioavailability and metabolic pathways in pigs. The core section summarizes findings from experimental investigations that highlight the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and prebiotic properties of these compounds, as well as their role in modulating intestinal barrier functions through cellular signaling mechanisms. Although fewer studies have been conducted specifically in pigs compared to other species, the available evidence supports the efficacy of incorporating up to 9% grape by-products in pig diets, leading to increased performance parameters. The authors conclude that supplementing grape polyphenols as natural feed additives improves antioxidant capacity, humoral and cellular immune responses, and the biodiversity of the intestinal ecosystem, ultimately contributing to better animal health and production outcomes.

Another bibliographic study published in this Special Issue focused on horse milk and meat as sustainable nutritional alternatives for global food security and environmental sustainability. The review, coordinated by Pânzaru C. [12], highlights the potential of equine-derived products that require further development in response to current global challenges, such as malnutrition, limited access to conventional animal products, and ecological concerns. Equine milk is distinguished by its bioavailable nutrients, essential fatty acids, and hypoallergenic properties, making it a viable substitute for individuals with allergies, lactose intolerance, or restricted access to traditional dairy sources. Likewise, equine meat, known for its high-quality protein content, low fat content, and essential micronutrients such as iron and zinc, provides an affordable and sustainable source of protein for food-insecure populations. The ability of equines to thrive on marginal lands, coupled with their lower environmental impact compared to traditional livestock (such as ruminants), underscores their potential within sustainable agricultural systems. This review concludes by underscoring the need for further research to address key challenges related to the integration of equine products in combating global hunger, highlighting their nutritional benefits, environmental advantages, and the need for further research to address the challenges of versatility, cultural acceptance, and policy integration.

Another article included in this Special Issue presents a comprehensive bibliographic study on the nutritional quality of eggs, with a focus on the development of omega-3- and omega-6-enriched varieties The paper, authored by Usturoi M.G. et al. [13], explores the role of eggs as functional foods, emphasizing their potential contribution to improving public health outcomes through targeted nutritional enhancement. The study outlines the biochemical and physiological importance of omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly in the context of cardiovascular protection, anti-inflammatory action, and cognitive support. Special attention is given to the techniques used to enrich eggs, specifically dietary modifications with flaxseed or marine algae for laying hens. These methods have been shown to improve the content of beneficial lipids and bioactive compounds in eggs, especially omega-3 content and in balancing the omega-6-omega-3 ratio. New research indicates that enriched eggs provide higher levels of essential fatty acids and bioactive compounds than conventional eggs, offering an accessible alternative to traditional omega-3 sources, especially for populations with limited access to fish, for example. In addition to highlighting the nutritional advantages of enriched eggs, the study further addresses the challenges of consumer perception, the sustainability of enrichment practices, and the regulatory constraints governing the commercialization of functional foods. The findings highlight that omega-enriched eggs represent a valuable nutritional and functional food that aligns with health-related dietary trends and encourages further research to refine enrichment methods and ensure broader accessibility in the market.

The final contribution to this Special Issue is a bibliographic study presented by Andronachi V.C. et al. [14], offering an overview of melatonin, its synthesis processes, and its multiple bioactive functions in both animals and humans. Melatonin, a natural hormone synthesized primarily by the pineal gland of vertebrates and, secondarily, by other tissues and organs, is increasingly recognized as a multifunctional bioactive molecule with physiological, metabolic, and regulatory roles across animals and humans. The review synthesizes scientific evidence up to the year 2024 regarding the endogenous and exogenous sources of melatonin, including its occurrence in various plant species and bacterial strains. Particular attention is given to the factors influencing melatonin biosynthesis and secretion in animals, emphasizing how nutritional and environmental factors, such as light exposure, feeding methods, and physiological status, can modulate circulating melatonin levels and even affect its transfer into animal food products, notably milk. Furthermore, the study explores the complex interactions between melatonin and other bioactive compounds within animals and humans, aiming to clarify its functions and roles in biological systems.

This Special Issue of Agriculture, dedicated to the influence of agricultural factors on animal production, brings together the diverse approaches of original research and bibliographic studies that reflect some of the most recent and relevant topics in the field. The contributions address both fundamental and applied aspects of animal science, highlighting the role of genetics, nutrition, environmental conditions, and sustainable practices in optimizing animal productivity and welfare. We are pleased to have successfully completed the editorial process for this issue, despite the challenges encountered along the way. We would like to acknowledge the valuable scientific contributions of all the authors whose work has enriched this volume. Notably, many of the contributors are young researchers whose involvement demonstrated the promising future of agricultural and animal science research.