Next Article in Journal
Polysulfone/MMT Clay Mixed Matrix Membranes for Efficient Diclofenac Removal and Improved Antifouling Performance in Wastewater Treatment
Previous Article in Journal
Fabrication of Polyamide Thin-Film Composite/Polyethersulfone-Coreshell-Fe3O4/ZnO Membranes for the Efficient Removal of Pb(II) from Wastewater
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Membranes
Volume 15
Issue 11
10.3390/membranes15110343
membranes-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Stable Ti3C2 MXene-Based Nanofiltration Membrane Prepared by Bridging for Efficient Dye Wastewater Treatment

by
Yu Zhang
and
Ming Qiu
*
College of Biological Chemical Science and Engineering, Jiaxing University, Jiaxing 314001, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Membranes 2025, 15(11), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15110343
Submission received: 24 October 2025 / Revised: 14 November 2025 / Accepted: 14 November 2025 / Published: 18 November 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Transition metal carbides/nitrides (MXenes) nanosheets have emerged as promising candidates for constructing high-performance nanofiltration (NF) membranes for separation processes. However, MXene membranes exhibit limited feasibility due to the instability of their microstructure, which can lead to failure in the filtration process. This study presents a bridging strategy (polyethyleneimine and polydopamine) to prepare a stable titanium carbide (Ti3C2) membrane, resulting in superior nanofiltration efficiency. Polyethyleneimine intercalation can inhibit the tendency to swell, while polydopamine enhances the force between the substrate and nanosheets. The optimized membrane possesses a permeate flux of 112.3 L m−2 h−1 bar−1 (1.6 times higher than pristine Ti3C2 membrane) and good selectivity (methyl blue rejection rate: ~99.5%; Na2SO4 rejection rate: <5.0%). In addition, the prepared membrane has good long-time durability and is more suitable for low pressure nanofiltration. Notably, the bridging strategy is also applicable to various two-dimensional lamellar membranes. This strategy provides a universal method for enhancing the stability of two-dimensional membranes, thereby promoting their practical applications in robust separation processes.

1. Introduction

The textile sector produces significant amounts of wastewater rich in dyes and salts, which present considerable risks to both human health and society [1,2,3]. Membrane technologies are extensively employed in processes of separation and purification, given their benefits, including high efficiency in separation, eco-friendliness, and energy conservation [4,5]. Notably, nanofiltration (NF) technology has been demonstrated as effective for treating textile wastewater [3,6,7]. The core of NF technology is high-performance NF membrane material [8,9,10]. However, traditional thin-film composite polyamide membrane still has many problems, such as the permeability–selectivity trade-off, which limits its application in the precise separation of molecules and ions [11,12,13].
The utilization of two-dimensional (2D) materials for the fabrication of membranes has attracted considerable interest in recent studies [14,15]. Owing to the atomic-scale thickness of 2D nanosheets, ultrathin membranes with nanosized interlayer channels can be produced, enabling rapid and selective molecular transport [16,17]. The development of 2D nanomaterials used in the creation of NF membranes has mainly been with graphene oxide (GO), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), transition metal carbides/nitrides (MXenes), metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) [18,19,20,21,22]. As the most studied MXene phase, 2D titanium carbide (Ti3C2) possesses the merits of large lateral dimensions, ease of functionalization, good hydrophilicity, and antibacterial properties, and so has emerged as one of the most favored materials for constructing high-performance NF membranes [23,24,25]. However, the performance of Ti3C2-based membranes is often hindered, especially in water-related applications, due to the swelling effect of the nanosheets, which leads to the membrane’s susceptibility to disintegration in aqueous environments [26,27,28]. Therefore, it is essential to enhance the stability of Ti3C2-based membranes to effectively transfer their advantageous structural properties to water-related applications.
Many strategies have been proposed to improve the stability of Ti3C2 nanosheets, including crosslinking, cation intercalation, and self-crosslinking [26,29,30,31]. These methods significantly improve the interaction among the neighboring nanosheets. Lu et al. [28] prepared a self-crosslinked Ti3C2 membrane by establishing Ti−O−Ti bonds between the adjacent nanosheets through a simple thermal treatment process. This self-crosslinked Ti3C2 membrane demonstrates remarkable stability and effective ion exclusion. Wang et al. [32] prepared a Ti3C2 laminar membrane with nanochannel diameters of 7.4  Å by Ca-alginate hydrogel pillars. The resulting membrane presents an excellent sieving property towards valent cations (100% for Na2SO4). Zhang et al. [33] prepared a poly (acrylic acid)-modified Ti3C2/polyacrylonitrile composite membrane. The formed semi-interpenetrating network structure of poly (acrylic acid) can stabilize the structure and tune the d-spacing of the Ti3C2 membrane. Thus, this composite membrane shows superior permeability (516.34 L m−2 h−1) and high dye rejection (99.52%). Our previous work reported a tannic acid–iron-modified Ti3C2 membrane, which exhibits high water flux (90.5 L m−2 h−1 bar−1) and good separation efficiency for treating dye wastewater [23]. These modification methods not only inhibit the swelling of the nanosheets but also adjust the layer spacing of the membrane, thereby enabling the precise separation of ions or molecules. In addition, the laminar structure of nanosheets can be readily detached from the substrate during cross-flow testing conditions, significantly compromising the operational durability of 2D membranes [34,35,36]. To enhance the stability of the membrane, it is essential to simultaneously reinforce the interlaminar and interfacial interactions of the Ti3C2 membrane.
In this study, the hierarchical molecular bridging method was used to stabilize the Ti3C2 MXene membrane. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) was mixed with Ti3C2 solution, and then Ti3C2-based membranes were prepared on a polydopamine (PDA)-modified polyethersulfone substrate via vacuum filtration. The PEI polymer can act as a physical molecular bridge to restrain the swelling effect by hydrogen bonding and electrostatic force. Meanwhile, the d-spacing of the 2D membrane can be modified by adjusting the mass ratio of PEI to Ti3C2, which endows the membrane with a combination of high selectivity and permeability. In addition, the existence of PDA coating on the substrate can enhance the interactions between the Ti3C2 laminate and the substrate. Through the rational design of the molecular bridge, Ti3C2-based membranes have been stabilized and present excellent durability.

2. Experimental

2.1. Materials

Polyethersulfone (PES) membranes with a pore size of 0.22 μm, lithium fluoride (LiF, 99%), alcian blue 8GX (AB8GX, 50%), methyl blue (MB, AR), Congo red (CR, 98%), chrome black T (CBT, IND), methyl orange (MO, IND), methylene blue (MeB, 98%), and Ti3AlC2 powder (400 mesh, 99.5%) were sourced from Titanchem Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. Hydrochloric acid (HCl, 37%), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4, 99%), sodium chloride (NaCl, 99.99%), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4, 98%), and magnesium chloride (MgCl2, 99%) were acquired from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. Additionally, polyethyleneimine (Mw = 10,000, 99%), dopamine hydrochloride (98%), and tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane hydrochloride buffer (Tris-HCl, 0.01 M, pH 8.5) were obtained from Macklin Reagent Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China. All chemicals were used as received, and deionized water was employed throughout the entirety of this study.

2.2. Preparation of Ti3C2

The synthesis of Ti3C2 nanosheets was achieved employing a mild etching method [37]. Initially, 1.0 g of lithium fluoride (LiF) was mixed with 10.0 mL of 9.0 mol/L hydrochloric acid (HCl) under magnetic stirring in a tetrafluoroethylene beaker at room temperature until complete dissolution occurred. Afterward, 0.5 g of Ti3AlC2 powder was incrementally introduced into the acidic solution. This mixture was stirred continuously at 35 °C for a duration of 24 h. Subsequently, the product underwent centrifugation at 3500 rpm for 5 min and was washed with deionized (DI) water until the pH rose above 6. The resulting product was then re-dispersed in water using ultrasonic treatment. Finally, the resultant suspension was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 min; the supernatant was then collected and refrigerated for future use.

2.3. Preparation of Ti3C2 Membranes

A total of 0.4 g of dopamine hydrochloride was dissolved in 200.0 mL of Tris-HCl buffer solution under stirring at room temperature to create a uniform solution. The PES membranes were placed in the dopamine solution and allowed to incubate for 2 h, enabling the development of a polydopamine layer on the membrane surface.
Subsequently, polyethyleneimine (PEI) of varying mass was added to 50.0 mL of Ti3C2 solution, followed by ultrasonic treatment for 0.5 h and stirring for 1 h to obtain a uniform suspension. Membranes based on Ti3C2 and PEI were subsequently fabricated through a vacuum filtration approach and then dried in a vacuum oven (Figure 1). These membranes were labeled MPx, with M signifying Ti3C2 MXene, P indicating PEI, and X representing the mass ratio of PEI to Ti3C2. Table 1 provides the detailed composition of the produced membrane.

2.4. Instrument

The morphology of the Ti3C2 nanosheets was analyzed through transmission electron microscopy (TEM, FEI, TalosF200X, Waltham, MA, USA). The zeta potential of the nanosheets was determined with an electrokinetic analyzer (Anton Paar, SurPASS, Graz, Austria). For evaluating the structural properties of the Ti3C2 membranes, X-ray diffraction (XRD, Panalytical X’Pert3 Powder, Almelo, The Netherlands) was used, utilizing Cu Kα radiation (λ = 0.15418 nm) with a step size of 1.0°. The d-spacing value was determined by utilizing Bragg’s law: λ = 2dsinθ. The chemical functional groups in both the nanosheets and membranes were examined via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Thermo Fisher Scientific, IS50, Waltham, MA, USA) across a spectral range from 4000 to 500 cm−1. The chemical composition of the membranes was evaluated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Thermo Fisher Scientific, K-Alpha, Waltham, MA, USA). The surface and cross-sectional structures of the membranes were further assessed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM; S4800, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). Samples were placed on aluminum stubs and coated with gold before testing. To obtain topographical images of the membranes, atomic force microscopy (AFM; Bruker Dimension Icon, Karlsruhe, Germany) was employed in tapping mode. The quantitative roughness of the surface was evaluated using NanoScope Analysis V3.0 software, expressed as mean roughness (Ra). All samples were dried and stored in a dryer before testing. The experimental data were processed and visualized using Origin 2019 software.

2.5. Separation Performance of the Ti3C2 Membrane

The performance of membrane filtration was evaluated using a laboratory-scale cross-flow filtration system, which had a functional filtration area of 3.14 cm2. The test temperature is 25 °C.
The permeate flux (F, L m−2 h−1) for the membranes was derived from Equation (1).
F = V/A t
In this equation, V (L) denotes the volume of the filtered water, t (h) represents the duration, and A (m2) signifies the effective filtration area.
The membrane rejection rate to dyes or salts was determined via Equation (2).
R (%) = 100(C0 − Cf)/C0
Here, Cf (g L−1) and C0 (g L−1) refer to the concentrations of the filtered and feed solutions, respectively. The concentrations of dyes were evaluated by assessing the absorbance of the dye solution at its maximum absorption wavelength using a UV-vis spectrophotometer (UV 7, Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA). Meanwhile, salt concentrations were ascertained through conductivity measurements with a conductivity meter (FE 38, Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA).
The stability of the membrane was assessed by a long-term filtration measurement, with a duration of 72 h and an operational pressure set at 3.0 bar.
Each sample underwent testing a minimum of three times, and the average result was considered the final outcome.

3. Results

3.1. Characterization of Ti3C2

As shown in Figure 2a, single-layer Ti3C2 nanosheets measuring 3.0−4.0 μm in lateral dimensions can be acquired after the etching treatment. After modification with PEI, the nanosheets retain their morphological features without any considerable alteration (Figure 2b). The elemental composition of the nanosheets was further analyzed using dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). As shown in Figure 2c, the nitrogen element was uniformly distributed on the nanosheet surface. However, when the mass ratio of PEI/Ti3C2 reached 1.5:1, sediments appeared in the mixed solution due to electrostatic interactions between nanosheets and PEI (Figure 2d). As shown in Figure 2e, the FTIR spectrum of Ti3C2 displays absorption peaks at 3440 cm−1 and 1630 cm−1, which are associated with the stretching vibrations of hydroxyl (−OH) and carbonyl (C=O) functional groups, respectively. For the PEI-modified Ti3C2, three additional peaks at 2830 cm−1, 1580 cm−1, and 1362 cm−1 can be observed, which correspond to the characteristic vibrations of −CH2, N−H, and C−N bonds from PEI [38], respectively. Furthermore, compared to the unmodified Ti3C2, the −OH peak in the spectrum of PEI-modified Ti3C2 shifts to a lower wavenumber, suggesting that hydrogen bonding has occurred between the nanosheets and the PEI molecules [17]. The zeta potential of the nanosheet suspension was additionally assessed (Figure 2f). The Ti3C2 suspension consistently maintains a negative charge because of the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups on the nanosheet surface, while the PEI/Ti3C2 suspension is positively charged at pH = 6.5. Due to the high density of positively charged amino groups on polyethyleneimine (PEI) molecular chain, a portion of these groups neutralize the negative surface charge of the Ti3C2 nanosheets. The remaining amino groups are exposed to the surrounding medium, which causes the PEI/Ti3C2 nanosheets to exhibit a positive surface charge [39]. These results support the successful combination of Ti3C2 with PEI molecules.

3.2. Characterization of Membranes

As illustrated in Figure 3a, many granular protrusions can be observed on the PDA-modified membrane surface. The FTIR analysis of the surface chemical structure of the membranes is depicted in Figure 3b. Compared to the original PES substrate, the PDA-coated membrane displays a peak at 1580 cm−1, which is associated with the N-H bending vibration characteristic of polydopamine [40]. These findings imply a successful PDA modification. Moreover, the presence of PDA improves the interaction between the PES membrane and Ti3C2 laminate. In addition, after PDA modification, the flux of the membrane decreases slightly, and the dye rejection has almost no change, indicating that the PDA layer has minimal influence on the separation performance.
The morphologies of the prepared Ti3C2-based membranes were observed by SEM. Figure 4a illustrates a characteristic corrugated structure observed in the pristine Ti3C2 (MP0) membrane. This unique morphology arises from the stacking and subsequent shrinkage of the nanosheets that occurs throughout the drying process [41]. Notably, the surface of the PEI-modified Ti3C2 (MP50) membrane does not exhibit any discernible corrugated morphology (Figure 4d), which is also reflected in AFM images. The average surface roughness (Ra) of the MP0 membrane is higher than that of the MP50 membrane, as depicted in Figure 4c,f. PEI molecules play important roles in the deposition process of Ti3C2, facilitating the uniform deposition of nanosheets and thereby contributing to the formation of a smooth surface. Lower roughness leads to a diminished effective filtration area and improved antifouling property. Meanwhile, the thickness of the Ti3C2 membrane increases a little after PEI modification seen from the cross-sectional images (Figure 4b,e), which may affect the separation performance.
The chemical composition of the membrane surface was investigated by XPS. As depicted in Figure 5a, the XPS survey spectrum for the MP0 and MP50 membranes reveals notable differences. Compared with the MP0 membrane, the MP50 membrane displays the emergence of a new peak of nitrogen. As shown in Figure 5b, the high-resolution XPS spectrum of the N 1s for the MP50 membrane is characterized by two distinct peaks at 398.6 eV and 400.9 eV, attributed to –NH2 and −NH3+ chemical bonds from PEI, respectively. Figure 5c illustrates the high-resolution XPS spectrum for the C 1s of the MP0 membrane, which presents three peaks at energies of 281.6, 284.1, and 285.8 eV, corresponding to C−Ti, C−C, and C−O bonds, respectively. For the MP50 membrane, as shown in Figure 5d, the high-resolution spectrum of C 1s has been further resolved into five peaks at 281.6 eV, 284.2 eV, 285.8 eV, 286.4 eV, and 288.2 eV, which correspond to C−Ti, C−C, C−O, C−N, and C=O bonds [42], respectively. In addition, after PEI modification, a decrease in the intensity of the C−Ti peak is observed, while the intensity of the C−C peaks shows an increase. These results confirm the successful incorporation of PEI into the Ti3C2 membrane.
The distance between neighboring nanosheets (d-spacing) can be determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD). As depicted in Figure 6a, the MP0 membrane displays a peak (002) at 2θ = 6.77°, indicating a d-spacing of approximately 1.31 nm. In contrast, the (002) peak for the MP50 membrane is observed at a slightly lower angle (2θ = 6.66°), suggesting that the incorporation of PEI into the Ti3C2 membrane expands the d-spacing to about 1.33 nm. These wider channels can improve the permeability of the membrane. As shown in Figure 6b, the MP0 membrane exhibits a notable increase in d-spacing when it is wetted, changing from approximately 1.31 nm to 1.47 nm. When placed in an aqueous solution, the water molecules that are absorbed in the nanochannels can cause unwanted swelling, which increases the interlayer spacing [29]. However, the d-spacing of the wetted MP50 membrane undergoes a slight increase, altering from approximately 1.33 nm to 1.35 nm. This is because PEI molecules can strengthen the interaction between neighboring nanosheets via bridging, which mitigates the swelling of the membrane.

3.3. Performance of Ti3C2-Based Membranes

Figure 7a demonstrates that the permeate fluxes of Ti3C2-based membranes with different amounts of PEI initially increase before subsequently declining. The improvement in permeate fluxes can be associated with the greater distance between the layers. Nevertheless, a high content of PEI (greater than 50%) would obstruct the nanochannel and enhance the membrane’s thickness, consequently elevating the resistance to mass transfer. In addition, all the PEI-modified membranes show a better MB rejection than the pristine Ti3C2 membrane does. The PEI modification increases the size of the nanochannels, while the interactions (hydrogen bond and electrostatic force) between the PEI and Ti3C2 nanosheets enhance its anti-swelling performance. The contrasting effects of PEI on the structure of the membrane prevent the Ti3C2 laminates from being compressed excessively or being too loosely arranged. This modulation successfully alters the spacing between layers to an ideal nanoscale range, enabling the infiltration of water molecules while simultaneously limiting the movement of dye molecules, thereby addressing the trade-off limitation. Of these, the MP50 membrane has been selected for additional separation experiments.
The performance of the MP50 membrane was evaluated under various operating pressures. As illustrated in Figure 7b, the permeate flux of the MB solution rises with an increase in pressure from 1 to 3 bar; however, once the pressure surpasses 3 bar, the flux begins to decline. This phenomenon occurs because the PEI molecules become compressed as the pressure increases, leading to a reduced d-spacing value and narrower nanofiltration channels. When the test pressure is reduced from 5 bar to 1 bar, the flux recovers to 93.5 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, while it remains lower than the flux observed at the initial test pressure of 1 bar. The elasticity of hydrated PEI enables the restoration of the compressed channel as the pressure decreases. However, the nanochannels formed by the wrinkles in Ti3C2 membranes collapse under high pressure [43], and this process is irreversible, which causes the reduced flux. Thus, this Ti3C2-based membrane is particularly suitable for low-pressure nanofiltration applications with high efficiency. Furthermore, at all tested operating pressures, the rejection rate for MB dye by the MP50 membrane remains consistently high, exceeding 99.0%, which indicates the membrane’s remarkable stability.
A total of six dye types, differing in their molecular weights and charge characteristics, were employed to assess the separation capabilities of the MP50 membrane. Figure 7c illustrates that the MP50 membrane demonstrates a rejection rate exceeding 95% for dyes that possess different charges but have larger molecular weights (greater than 461.4 g mol−1). Specifically, the rejection rates are 99.9% for AB8GX (positively charged, Mw = 1298.9), 98.5% for MB (negatively charged, Mw = 799.8), 97.8% for CR (negatively charged, Mw = 696.7), and 95.6% for CBT (negatively charged, Mw = 461.4). In contrast, for dyes that possess low molecular weights, the rejection rates drop to below 90%. These findings indicate that the sieving effect significantly contributes to molecular filtration. In addition, the rejections of the MP50 membrane toward MO (negatively charged, Mw = 327.0) and MeB (positively charged, Mw = 319.1) are 55.8% and 82.3%, respectively, which is attributed to the electrostatic repulsion effects. In conclusion, both the effects of size sieving and Donnan repulsion work together to significantly influence the effective separation of dyes. In addition, textile wastewater generally has a significant concentration of dyes; thus, the impact of dye concentration on the efficiency of removal and the permeability of the membrane was examined. As illustrated in Figure 7d, the MP50 membrane exhibits a consistently high MB rejection rate (>99.0%), when the MB concentration changes between 50 and 1000 ppm. However, there is a notable reduction in permeate flux as the concentration of MB rises, resulting from enhanced concentration polarization and the accumulation of foulants on the membrane’s surface [44]. As shown in Figure 7e, the MP50 membrane exhibits a low level of salt rejection (<10%). An experiment aimed at separating dyes and salts, simulating real textile wastewater, was conducted. Figure 7f illustrates that the MP50 membrane exhibits a high rate of dye rejection while displaying a low rate of salt rejection in the mixed solutions. The MP50 membrane is capable of efficiently separating dye from salt, mainly due to its adjustable d-spacing, which aligns with the molecular sizes of both the dye and the salt. Significantly, as illustrated in Table 2, the MP50 membrane demonstrates superior dye rejection when contrasted with the most recent Ti3C2-based membranes reported in the literature, while also sustaining a high flux, highlighting its outstanding capacity for dye/salt separation.

3.4. Long-Term Stability of Membranes

The long-term stability of the membrane has been illustrated through the changes in membrane separation performance over a period of operation. As indicated in Figure 8a, a characteristic swelling-induced permeation pattern is evident in the Ti3C2/PES membrane; this pattern shows a gradual reduction in rejection rates alongside an increase in permeance throughout the treatment period. Notably, after 72 h treatment, the dye rejection of the Ti3C2/PES membrane decreases to only 20%. This reduction occurs because the Ti3C2 laminate tends to separate easily from the PES substrate under the crossflow mode due to insufficient adhesion. In contrast, the MP50% membrane shows a decline in permeance during 72 h treatment, which is mainly caused by the membrane fouling (Figure 8b). Meanwhile, the dye adsorbed on the membrane surface further enhanced the rejection. The long-term filtration tests reveal the exceptional stability of the MP50 membrane. The presence of PEI stabilizes the nanosheets through both hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, thereby improving the membrane’s anti-swelling capacity. Moreover, the PDA coating provides ample physical interaction between the PEI−Ti3C2 laminate and the substrate. Furthermore, PDA promotes chemical bonding with the amine groups of PEI via a Schiff base reaction, thus reinforcing the bond between the substrate and the nanosheets (Figure 8c). Consequently, the bridging strategy is a crucial process for imparting high stability to the membrane.

4. Conclusions

In summary, we have shown a simple and effective approach to stabilizing Ti3C2 membranes through the formation and adjustment of molecular bridges. The intercalation of PEI enlarges the nanochannels of Ti3C2 laminate and inhibits the swelling of the nanosheets; polydopamine coating on the substrate surface enhances the force between the substrate and nanosheets, endowing the membrane with excellent combination characteristics of high nanofiltration performance and stability. The water permeance of the optimized MP50 membrane is 1.6 times improved, which is attributed to the expanded nanochannels. In addition, the adjustable nanochannels endow a membrane that demonstrates significant dye rejection (>95%) while maintaining low salt rejection (<10%). Moreover, the MP50 membrane shows exceptional long-term stability during water separation processes. This work presents a reliable strategy for stabilizing MXene membranes, opening new avenues for the design of promising high-performance 2D membranes in energy and environmental fields.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.; writing—review and editing, supervision, M.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Natural Science Foundation of Zhejiang Province (No. LQ23B040001) and Bureau of Science and Technology of Jiaxing, China (NO. 2023AY40004).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Ma, H.; Yu, L.; Yang, L.; Yao, Y.; Shen, G.; Wang, Y.; Li, B.; Meng, J.; Miao, M.; Zhi, C. Graphene oxide composites for dye removal in textile, printing and dyeing wastewaters: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2025, 23, 165–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Zhai, H.; Liu, Z.; Xu, L.; Liu, T.; Fan, Y.; Jin, L.; Dong, R.; Yi, Y.; Li, Y. Waste textile reutilization via a scalable dyeing technology: A strategy to enhance dyestuffs degradation efficiency. Adv. Fiber Mater. 2022, 4, 1595–1608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Liu, Y.; Zhu, J.; Chi, M.; Eygen, G.V.; Guan, K.; Matsuyama, H. Comprehensive review of nanofiltration membranes for efficient resource recovery from textile wastewater. Chem. Eng. J. 2025, 506, 160132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Feng, X.; Zhu, J.; Jin, J.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Van der Bruggen, B. Polymers of intrinsic microporosity for membrane-based precise separations. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2024, 144, 101285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Zhao, W.; Yin, P.; Wang, Z.; Huang, J.; Fu, Y.; Hu, W. Recent advances in regulation methods for selective separation and precise control of two-dimensional (2D) lamellar membranes. Adv. Colloid Interfac. 2024, 334, 103330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Zhang, Z.; Song, Y.; Xie, L.; Liu, Q.; Li, J.; Zhang, B. A loose polyethersulfone hybrid nanofiltration membrane incorporated with polyethyleneimine-decorated silica nanoparticles for highly-efficient dye/salt separation. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 487, 150643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Baig, N.; Usman, J.; Abba, S.I.; Benaafi, M.; Aljundi, I.H. Fractionation of dyes/salts using loose nanofiltration membranes: Insight from machine learning prediction. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 418, 138193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Lv, Y.; Huang, Y.; Liu, Z.; Chen, R.; Wang, H.; Wang, K.; Zhao, H. Electroneutral nanofiltration membranes from interfacial polymerization of fluorinated activated ester. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2025, 363, 132084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Zhang, H.; Duan, Y.; Elimelech, M.; Wang, Y. Scalable catalytic nanofiltration membranes for advanced water treatment. Nat. Water 2025, 3, 1038–1047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Pan, Y.; Tu, C.; Li, X.; Gao, L.; Xu, B.; Zhang, W.-H.; Meng, H. Facile fabrication of COF nanofiltration membranes via acetic acid-catalyzed interfacial polymerization. J. Membr. Sci. 2025, 732, 124269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Liu, L.; Liu, Y.; Huang, J.; Chen, X.; Feng, S.; Wan, Y.; Luo, J. Strengthening nanofiltration membrane: Strategies for enhanced antifouling performance. Chem. Eng. J. 2025, 508, 160964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Hwang, J.; Kim, N.K.; Osuji, C.O. Fouling resistant nanofiltration membranes from self-assembled quaternary ammonium monomers. J. Membr. Sci. 2025, 727, 124101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Xie, Y.; Ren, J.; Liu, P.; Zheng, J.; Mai, Z.; Liu, Y.; Zhu, X.; Li, X.; Xu, D.; Liang, H. Fabrication of green xylose-based nanofiltration membrane with enhanced performance and chlorine resistance. Desalination 2025, 593, 118243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Liu, G.; Jin, W.; Xu, N. Two-dimensional-material membranes: A new family of high-performance separation membranes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 13384–13397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Zhao, J.; He, G.; Chen, Y.; Dong, S.; Jiang, Z.; Jin, W. Engineering high-flux 2D separation membranes: Fundamentals, strategies, and future directions. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Xing, C.; Han, J.; Pei, X.; Zhang, Y.; He, J.; Huang, R.; Li, S.; Liu, C.; Lai, C.; Shen, L.; et al. Tunable graphene oxide nanofiltration membrane for effective dye/salt separation and desalination. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 55339–55348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Zhang, Y.; Chen, D.; Li, N.; Xu, Q.; Li, H.; He, J.; Lu, J. High-performance and stable two-dimensional MXene-polyethyleneimine composite lamellar membranes for molecular separation. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 10237–10245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Diao, Z.; Zhuang, S.; Yan, J.; Xu, Y.; Wu, Y.; Pan, J.; Yan, M. Recognition and separation of artemisinin by two-dimensional GO/MXene laminar imprinted composite membranes constructed based on self-supporting technology. J. Membr. Sci. 2024, 702, 122795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Wang, Z.; Tu, Q.; Sim, A.; Yu, J.; Duan, Y.; Poon, S.; Liu, B.; Han, Q.; Urban, J.J.; Sedlak, D.; et al. Superselective removal of lead from water by two-dimensional MoS2 nanosheets and layer-stacked membranes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 12602–12611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Zhu, Y.; Jian, M.; Meng, N.; Ji, Y.; Bai, X.; Wu, L.; Yang, H.; Tan, C.; Li, H. Recent progress in developing 2D MOFs/COFs/Zeolites nanosheets membranes for water purification. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2024, 337, 126404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Qiu, M.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Shen, Z. Defect remediation of mxene membranes facilitated by intercalation and coordination processes for enhanced organic pollutant removal. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2025, 8, 18070–18079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Li, Z.; Fan, J.; Wang, L.; Yang, X.; Guo, L.; Chen, H.; Gong, D.; Yang, G.; Xu, Q.; Zou, S.; et al. Two-dimensional lamellar stacking COF membrane with charge repulsion effect for ions separation. J. Membr. Sci. 2024, 699, 122645. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Qiu, M.; Shen, Z.; Xia, Q.; Li, X.; Huang, H.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Y. Metal-polyphenol cross-linked titanium carbide membranes with stable interlayer spacing for efficient wastewater treatment. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2022, 628, 649–659. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Wang, Y.; Sun, Y.; Zou, L.; Yang, W.; Li, X.; Yang, Y.; Jiang, D. Facile MXene-templated thin film composite membranes for enhanced nanofiltration performance. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2025, 362, 131680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Wu, Z.-H.; Wang, M.; Ren, Y.-X.; Li, S.; Liu, X.-Y.; Cao, Y.; Wu, X.-Q.; Hai, G.; Jiang, Z.; Li, D.-S. MXene-intercalated covalent organic framework membranes for high-flux nanofiltration. J. Membr. Sci. 2024, 701, 122755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Yin, Z.; Lu, Z.; Xu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; He, L.; Li, P.; Xiong, L.; Ding, L.; Wei, Y.; Wang, H. Supported MXene/GO composite membranes with suppressed swelling for metal ion sieving. Membranes 2021, 11, 621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Helal, M.I.; Sinopoli, A.; Gladich, I.; Tong, Y.; Alfahel, R.; Gomez, T.; Mahmoud, K.A. Understanding the swelling behavior of Ti3C2Tx MXene membranes in aqueous media. J. Mater. Chem. A 2024, 12, 30729–30742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Lu, Z.; Wei, Y.; Deng, J.; Ding, L.; Li, Z.-K.; Wang, H. Self-crosslinked MXene (Ti3C2Tx) membranes with good antiswelling property for monovalent metal ion exclusion. ACS Nano 2019, 13, 10535–10544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Zhang, H.; Zheng, Y.; Zhou, H.; Zhu, S.; Yang, J. Nanocellulose-intercalated MXene NF membrane with enhanced swelling resistance for highly efficient antibiotics separation. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2023, 305, 122425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Yang, R.; Wang, H.; Hua, J.; Li, J. Intercalation of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose with MXene membrane layer spacing regulation and monovalent/divalent ion separation. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2025, 354, 128812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Sun, Y.; Xu, D.; Li, S.; Cui, L.; Zhuang, Y.; Xing, W.; Jing, W. Assembly of multidimensional MXene-carbon nanotube ultrathin membranes with an enhanced anti-swelling property for water purification. J. Membr. Sci. 2021, 623, 119075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Wang, J.; Zhang, Z.; Zhu, J.; Tian, M.; Zheng, S.; Wang, F.; Wang, X.; Wang, L. Ion sieving by a two-dimensional Ti3C2Tx alginate lamellar membrane with stable interlayer spacing. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 3540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Zhang, Y.; Li, S.; Huang, R.; He, J.; Sun, Y.; Qin, Y.; Shen, L. Stabilizing MXene-based nanofiltration membrane by forming analogous semi-interpenetrating network architecture using flexible poly(acrylic acid) for effective wastewater treatment. J. Membr. Sci. 2022, 648, 120360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Long, Q.; Zhao, S.; Chen, J.; Zhang, Z.; Qi, G.; Liu, Z.-Q. Self-assembly enabled nano-intercalation for stable high-performance MXene membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2021, 635, 119464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Karahan, H.E.; Goh, K.; Zhang, C.; Yang, E.; Yıldırım, C.; Chuah, C.Y.; Ahunbay, M.G.; Lee, J.; Tantekin-Ersolmaz, Ş.B.; Chen, Y.; et al. MXene materials for designing advanced separation membranes. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 1906697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Zhang, T.-Q.; Hao, S.; Zhao, J.-K.; Jia, Z.-Q.; Tan, H.-W.; Yang, Y.; Hou, L.-A. Exfoliated MXene/poly-melamine-formaldehyde composite membranes for removal of heavy metals and organics from aqueous solutions. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 463, 132866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Wei, Y.; Zhang, P.; Soomro, R.A.; Zhu, Q.; Xu, B. Advances in the synthesis of 2D MXenes. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2103148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Wang, Q.; Wang, Y.; Huang, Y.; Wang, H.; Gao, Y.; Zhao, M.; Tu, L.; Xue, L.; Gao, C. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) based positively charged thin film composite polyamide (TFC-PA) nanofiltration (NF) membranes for effective Mg2+/Li+ separation. Desalination 2023, 565, 116814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Xie, J.; Su, F.; Fan, L.; Mu, Z.; Wang, H.; He, Z.; Zhang, W.; Yao, D.; Zheng, Y. Robust and stretchable Ti3C2Tx MXene/PEI conductive composite dual-network hydrogels for ultrasensitive strain sensing. Compos. Part A-Appl. S. 2024, 176, 107833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Yu, X.; Zhu, W.; Li, Y.; Zhu, W.; Chen, X.; Hao, H.; Yu, M.; Huang, Y. Dual-bioinspired fabrication of Janus Micro/nano PDA-PTFE/TiO2 membrane for efficient oil-water separation. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2024, 330, 125201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Li, Z.-K.; Wei, Y.; Gao, X.; Ding, L.; Lu, Z.; Deng, J.; Yang, X.; Caro, J.; Wang, H. Antibiotics Separation with MXene Membranes Based on Regularly Stacked High-Aspect-Ratio Nanosheets. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2020, 59, 9751–9756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Zhao, X.; Che, Y.; Mo, Y.; Huang, W.; Wang, C. Fabrication of PEI modified GO/MXene composite membrane and its application in removing metal cations from water. J. Membr. Sci. 2021, 640, 119847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Liu, L.; Zhou, Y.; Xue, J.; Wang, H. Enhanced antipressure ability through graphene oxide membrane by intercalating g-C3N4 nanosheets for water purification. AIChE J. 2019, 65, e16699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ruiz-Torres, C.A.; Kang, J.; Kang, K.M.; Cho, K.M.; Nam, Y.T.; Byon, C.; Chang, Y.-Y.; Kim, D.W.; Jung, H.-T. Graphene-based ultrafast nanofiltration membrane under cross-flow operation: Effect of high-flux and filtered solute on membrane performance. Carbon 2021, 185, 641–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Zhang, S.; Liao, S.; Qi, F.; Liu, R.; Xiao, T.; Hu, J.; Li, K.; Wang, R.; Min, Y. Direct deposition of two-dimensional MXene nanosheets on commercially available filter for fast and efficient dye removal. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 384, 121367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Zhu, X.; Lou, M.; Chen, J.; Fang, X.; Huang, S.; Li, F. MXene/ZIF-L co-stacking membranes with high water permeation for solute-tailored selectivity. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2023, 625, 157194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Gu, S.; Ma, Y.; Zhang, T.; Yang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Li, J. MXene nanosheet tailored bioinspired modification of a nanofiltration membrane for dye/salt separation. ACS EST Water 2023, 3, 1756–1766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Pandey, R.P.; Rasool, K.; Madhavan, V.E.; Aïssa, B.; Gogotsi, Y.; Mahmoud, K.A. Ultrahigh-flux and fouling-resistant membranes based on layered silver/MXene (Ti3C2Tx) nanosheets. J. Mater. Chem. A 2018, 6, 3522–3533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Li, Y.; Dai, R.; Zhou, H.; Li, X.; Wang, Z. Aramid nanofiber membranes reinforced by MXene nanosheets for recovery of dyes from textile wastewater. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2021, 4, 6328–6336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Membranes 15 00343 g001
Figure 1. Schematic illustrations depicting the preparation procedure of the membrane.
Figure 1. Schematic illustrations depicting the preparation procedure of the membrane.
Membranes 15 00343 g001
Membranes 15 00343 g002
Figure 2. (a) TEM image illustrating Ti3C2 nanosheet; (b) TEM image illustrating PEI-modified Ti3C2; (c) STEM-EDX elemental mapping images of PEI-modified Ti3C2 (PEI/Ti3C2 = 1:1); (d) Photos of PEI/Ti3C2 mixture with different mass ratio; (e) FTIR spectra of Ti3C2 and PEI-modified Ti3C2 (PEI/Ti3C2 = 1:1); (f) Zeta potential of PEI/Ti3C2 mixture at pH = 6.5.
Figure 2. (a) TEM image illustrating Ti3C2 nanosheet; (b) TEM image illustrating PEI-modified Ti3C2; (c) STEM-EDX elemental mapping images of PEI-modified Ti3C2 (PEI/Ti3C2 = 1:1); (d) Photos of PEI/Ti3C2 mixture with different mass ratio; (e) FTIR spectra of Ti3C2 and PEI-modified Ti3C2 (PEI/Ti3C2 = 1:1); (f) Zeta potential of PEI/Ti3C2 mixture at pH = 6.5.
Membranes 15 00343 g002
Membranes 15 00343 g003
Figure 3. (a) Surface SEM image of PDA-modified PES membrane; (b) FTIR spectra of PES and PDA-modified PES membrane; (c) Permeate flux of PES and PDA-modified PES membrane; (d) UV−Vis absorption spectrum of methyl blue solution after filtration by PES and PDA-modified PES membrane.
Figure 3. (a) Surface SEM image of PDA-modified PES membrane; (b) FTIR spectra of PES and PDA-modified PES membrane; (c) Permeate flux of PES and PDA-modified PES membrane; (d) UV−Vis absorption spectrum of methyl blue solution after filtration by PES and PDA-modified PES membrane.
Membranes 15 00343 g003
Membranes 15 00343 g004
Figure 4. (a) Surface SEM image of MP0 membrane; (b) Cross-sectional SEM image of MP0 membrane; (c) AFM image of MP0 membrane; (d) Surface SEM image of MP50 membrane; (e) Cross-sectional SEM image of MP50 membrane; (f) AFM image of MP50 membrane.
Figure 4. (a) Surface SEM image of MP0 membrane; (b) Cross-sectional SEM image of MP0 membrane; (c) AFM image of MP0 membrane; (d) Surface SEM image of MP50 membrane; (e) Cross-sectional SEM image of MP50 membrane; (f) AFM image of MP50 membrane.
Membranes 15 00343 g004
Membranes 15 00343 g005
Figure 5. (a) XPS survey spectra of MP0 and MP50 membranes; (b) High-resolution XPS spectrum for the N 1s of the MP50 membrane; (c) High-resolution XPS spectrum for the C 1s of the MP0 membrane; (d) High-resolution XPS spectrum for the C 1s of the MP50 membrane.
Figure 5. (a) XPS survey spectra of MP0 and MP50 membranes; (b) High-resolution XPS spectrum for the N 1s of the MP50 membrane; (c) High-resolution XPS spectrum for the C 1s of the MP0 membrane; (d) High-resolution XPS spectrum for the C 1s of the MP50 membrane.
Membranes 15 00343 g005
Membranes 15 00343 g006
Figure 6. (a) The XRD pattern of the MP0 and MP50 membranes in the dry state; (b) The XRD pattern of the MP0 and MP50 membranes in the wet state.
Figure 6. (a) The XRD pattern of the MP0 and MP50 membranes in the dry state; (b) The XRD pattern of the MP0 and MP50 membranes in the wet state.
Membranes 15 00343 g006
Membranes 15 00343 g007
Figure 7. (a) The flux and the rejection rate for the prepared membranes using a 100.0 ppm MB solution at 3.0 bar pressure; (b) The flux and rejection rate for the MP50 membrane at varying operational pressures using a 100.0 ppm MB solution; (c) The rejection rate of the MP50 membrane when utilizing a feed of 100.0 ppm solutions with various dyes at 3.0 bar pressure; (d) The flux and the rejection rate for the MP50 membrane with differing concentrations of MB dyes at 3.0 bar pressure; (e) The rejection rate of the MP50 membrane to various salts at 100.0 ppm at 3.0 bar pressure; (f) The rejection rate of the MP50 membrane in a mixture containing dye and salt at 3.0 bar pressure (100.0 ppm each of dye and salt).
Figure 7. (a) The flux and the rejection rate for the prepared membranes using a 100.0 ppm MB solution at 3.0 bar pressure; (b) The flux and rejection rate for the MP50 membrane at varying operational pressures using a 100.0 ppm MB solution; (c) The rejection rate of the MP50 membrane when utilizing a feed of 100.0 ppm solutions with various dyes at 3.0 bar pressure; (d) The flux and the rejection rate for the MP50 membrane with differing concentrations of MB dyes at 3.0 bar pressure; (e) The rejection rate of the MP50 membrane to various salts at 100.0 ppm at 3.0 bar pressure; (f) The rejection rate of the MP50 membrane in a mixture containing dye and salt at 3.0 bar pressure (100.0 ppm each of dye and salt).
Membranes 15 00343 g007
Membranes 15 00343 g008
Figure 8. (a) Variations in permeate flux and rejection of Ti3C2/PES membrane over time (J0 = 52.8 ± 6.2 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, R0 = 98.5%, operation pressure = 3.0 bar, 100.0 ppm of MB solution as feed); (b) Variations in permeate flux and rejection rates of the MP50 membrane over time (J0 = 114.0 ± 15.5 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, R0 = 99.6%, operation pressure = 3.0 bar, 100.0 ppm of MB solution as feed); (c) Stabilizing a Ti3C2 membrane through molecular bridges.
Figure 8. (a) Variations in permeate flux and rejection of Ti3C2/PES membrane over time (J0 = 52.8 ± 6.2 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, R0 = 98.5%, operation pressure = 3.0 bar, 100.0 ppm of MB solution as feed); (b) Variations in permeate flux and rejection rates of the MP50 membrane over time (J0 = 114.0 ± 15.5 L m−2 h−1 bar−1, R0 = 99.6%, operation pressure = 3.0 bar, 100.0 ppm of MB solution as feed); (c) Stabilizing a Ti3C2 membrane through molecular bridges.
Membranes 15 00343 g008
Table 1. Composition of prepared membranes.
Table 1. Composition of prepared membranes.
MembraneTi3C2 Loading
(mg)		PEI Loading
(mg) 		PEI/Ti3C2 Ratio
(%)
MP01.000
MP251.00.2525
MP501.00.5050
MP751.00.7575
MP1001.01.0100
Table 2. Comparative filtration performance of the MXene-based membranes.
Table 2. Comparative filtration performance of the MXene-based membranes.
MembraneWater Permeance
(Lm−2 h−1 bar−1)		Dye Rejection (%)Reference
MP50112.3AB8GX:99.9%
MB: 99.5%
CR: 97.8%		This work
MCE/MXene44.97MeB: 100.0%[45]
MXene/ZIF-L287.3CR: 99.2%[46]
PAA-MXene516.3AB8GX: 99.5%[33]
MXene/PDA/PEI38.4CR: 99.7%[47]
21%-Ag@MXene420RB: 79.9%[48]
MXene-ANF195.3AB: 99.1%[49]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, Y.; Qiu, M. Stable Ti3C2 MXene-Based Nanofiltration Membrane Prepared by Bridging for Efficient Dye Wastewater Treatment. Membranes 2025, 15, 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15110343

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Qiu M. Stable Ti3C2 MXene-Based Nanofiltration Membrane Prepared by Bridging for Efficient Dye Wastewater Treatment. Membranes. 2025; 15(11):343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15110343

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yu, and Ming Qiu. 2025. "Stable Ti3C2 MXene-Based Nanofiltration Membrane Prepared by Bridging for Efficient Dye Wastewater Treatment" Membranes 15, no. 11: 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15110343

APA Style

Zhang, Y., & Qiu, M. (2025). Stable Ti3C2 MXene-Based Nanofiltration Membrane Prepared by Bridging for Efficient Dye Wastewater Treatment. Membranes, 15(11), 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes15110343

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop