Electro-Driven Materials and Processes for Lithium Recovery—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Benchmark Lithium Compounds Production Technologies
2.1. Conventional Recovery of Li from Ores
2.2. Conventional Recovery of Li from Brines
Process | Adsorption | Membrane-Type Technologies | Thermal Technologies |
---|---|---|---|
Active reagents | Ion exchange resins, sorbents such as activated carbon or spinel-type materials | Ion exchange membranes, porous and nonporous membranes, asymmetrical with active thin layer | Thermal energy from sun light |
Time | 12–24 h | 12–24 h | >45 days |
Temperature | 25 °C | 25 °C | Depends on the region of evaporation (25–35 °C) |
Disadvantages | Sorption and desorption operation are required; batch operation; column package consumes a lot of resin (>0.5 kg); pretreatment is required | Fouling of membranes; stack of member to be effective; costs of membranes; required the separation and concentration nexus; pretreatment is required; required driven forces | Long-lasting process; small amount of brine rich in Li+ salts; low selective method |
Advantages | Flexibility of application depends on the type of resin; high selective; long-lasting time of using | High selectivity; continuous operations; flexibility of application | High concentrations of Li salts are obtained |
2.3. Conventional Li Recovery from e-Waste Products and Process Liquors
3. Electro-Membrane Processes for Lithium Recovery
3.1. Lithium Extraction from Brines by Electrodialysis
3.1.1. Principle of Electrodialysis and Materials Considerations
3.1.2. Li extraction Case Studies with ED
3.2. Capacitive Deionization (CDI)
3.2.1. Operation of CDI Systems
3.2.2. Performance/Materials Relationships for Li Recovery in CDI Systems
3.3. Hybrid Membrane Systems Involving Electro-Membrane Processes
3.3.1. Electrodialysis (ED)–Reverse Osmosis (RO)
3.3.2. Ion Exchange Adsorption–Ultrafiltration (UF)
3.3.3. Adsorptive Ion Exchange Membranes
3.3.4. Membrane Distillation Crystallization
3.3.5. Leaching–Flotation–Precipitation Process
3.3.6. Membrane Electrolysis
3.3.7. Membrane with Incorporated Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOF-on-MOF)
3.3.8. Pervaporation
4. Economical Aspects of Lithium Recovery with Electro-Driven Membrane Processes
4.1. Lithium Recovery from Minerals
4.2. Lithium Recovery from Brines
4.3. Lithium Recovery from e-Waste Brines
5. Summary and Prospects
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Minerals | Chemical Formula | Percentage of Lithium (wt%) |
---|---|---|
Spodumene | LiAlS2O6 | 3.73 |
Petalite | LiAlSi4O10 | 2.27 |
Lepidolite | LiKAl2F2Si3O9 | 3.56 |
Amblygonite | LiAlFPO4 | 4.74 |
Eucryptite | LiAlSiO4 | 5.53 |
Abnormalite | LiCO3 | 18.75 |
Country | Reservoir | Li Content (wt%) |
---|---|---|
Chile | Atacama | 0.15 |
China | Zabuye | 0.097 |
Chile | Maricunga | 0.092 |
Argentina | Olaroz | 0.07 |
Argentina | Hombre Muerto | 0.062 |
Bolivia | Uyuni | 0.045 |
USA | Great Salt Lake | 0.04 |
USA | Smackover | 0.037 |
China | DXC | 0.033 |
USA | Silver Peak | 0.03 |
Global | Geothermal water * | 0.015 |
Canada | Fox Creek | 0.01 |
Israel | Dead sea | 0.002 |
Global | Sea * | 0.00017 |
Component | g | % |
---|---|---|
Cathode material | 130.9 | 41.4 |
Metallic shell | 51 | 16.1 |
Plastic shell | 50 | 15.8 |
Electrolyte | 20.9 | 6.6 |
Cu electrode | 17.2 | 5.4 |
Al electrode | 7.5 | 2.4 |
Polymer | 6.8 | 2.2 |
Total | 316 | 100 |
Process | Acid/Sulfonation | Alkali | Chlorination |
---|---|---|---|
Active reagents | Alkali metal sulphates, sulfuric acid, SO3 at water or oxygen | Lime or limestone | Hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, or chlorine gas |
Time | 1–3 h | 1–2 h | Up to 2.5 h |
pH | 2–3 | 8–10 | ~5 |
Temperature | 200–1000 °C | 100–200 °C 800–1000 °C | 800–1100 °C |
Disadvantages | Non-selective method; A lot of leached solution is needed; Impurities such as Al, Na, Mg, Fe, and K | Need to decompose lime and limestones to CaO | Toxic chloric reagents; aggressive environment of leaching |
Advantages | High rate of Li extraction | High rate of Li extraction without corrosion agents | Selective for lithium chloride production |
Process | Operations | Advantages | Disadvantages | Company |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pyrometallurgy |
| Easy to scale up; simple pre-treatment; acid/alkaline free | High energy consumption; emission toxic gases and dust; hard to achieve lithium recovery | Accure GmBH; Batrec Industrie AG, Umicore; Inmetco, Akkuser Ltd.; SNAM |
Hydrometallurgy |
| Easy to recycle lithium; less gas and dust emissions; high purity of products | Consumption of acid/alkaline; low efficiency; complex to purification/separation metals | Retriev/Toxco; Recupyl; AEA; Onto |
Hybrid processes (Direct processes) |
| Relatively low efficiency of energy consumption; satisfactory recycling efficacy | Emission of toxic gasses and dust; complex process operations | Sony/Sumitomo |
Bio-metallurgy |
| Low cost; environmentally friendly | Time-consuming; possibility of contamination; sensitivity of microorganisms for pH and temperature | Have potential for commercialization |
Method | Electrical Mode | Lithium Resources | Membrane Type | Perm-Selectivity | Li Ions Extraction Efficiency | Energy Efficiency | Advantage | Limitation | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electrodialysis for brines | CC = 5.9 A/m2 | CLi+ = 0.15 g/L CMg2+ = 22.5 g/L Mg2+/Li+ | Selemion CSO Selemion ASA | SLi/Mg = 20.2–33.0 | >90% | 1.9 Wh/gLi+ | High selectivity for lithium ions, eco-friendly | [79] | |
CV = 6.0 V | CLi+ = 0.15 g/L CMg2+ = 22.5 g/L Mg2+/Li+ = 150 | Selemion CSO Selemion ASA | SLi/Mg = 17.9 | 96.1 | 0.78 Wh/gLi+ | [80] | |||
CV = 12–28 V | CLi+ = 4.5 g/L CMg2+ = 85 g/L Mg2+/Li+ = 18.9 | Selemion CSO Selemion ASA | SLi/Mg = 9.89 | 90.5 | 4.5 Wh/gLi+ | Application model real brines from East-Taijiner | Non-equal mass balance | [80] | |
CV = 5 V | CLi+ = 1 g/L CNa+ = 1–30 g/L CCa2+ = 1–30 g/L CMg2+ = 1–30 g/L | Neosepta CIMS Neosepta ACS | SLi/Mg = 20 | 80 | 4.7 Wh/gLi+ | Microcosmic theory of separation lithium | Different perm-selectivity depends on the initial ratio lithium to other cations | [8] | |
CV = 3–8 V | Mg2+/Li+ = 20 | n.s. | SLi/Mg = 3.5–4.2 | 60 | 62 Wh/gLi+ | Effect of coexisting cations on lithium separation | High energy consumption | [4] | |
CV =7 V | CLi+ = 12–15 g/L | AR204SXR412 and CR67, MK111 (Ionics, MA, USA) | n.s. | 20 | n.s. | Separation lithium toward sodium ions | Low efficiency of lithium recovery | [81] | |
CV =5 V | CLi+ = 0.14 g/L CNa+ = 8.4 g/L CMg2+ = 3.04 g/L CCl- = 30.25 g/L | Neosepta CIMS Neosepta ACS | SLi/Mg = 13 | 75.44 | 28.16 Wh/gLi+ | Separation lithium and Magnesium | High ratio of Magnesium in product | [82] | |
CV = 2–3 V | CLi+ = 0.17 µg/L CNa+ = 105 µg/L CMg2+ = 13.5 µg/L CK+ = 3.8 µg/L | Selemion CSO Selemion CMV | n.s. | 63 | n.s. | Separation lithium from seawater | Low ratio of recovery | [83] | |
CV = 2 V | n.s. | Li ionic superconductor-type crystals such as Li1+x+yAlx (Ti, Ge)2−xSiyP3−yO12, (Lix, Lay) TiOz and (Lix, Lay) ZrOz can be used as LISMs | n.s. | 7 | n.s. | Separation lithium from model mixture of Na, ka, Mg, and Ca | Low ratio of recovery | [84] | |
Electrodialysis with bipolar membrane | CV = 15 V | CLi+ = 250 mg/L Cboron = 800 mg/L | Standard CEM PC SK, bipolar membrane PCCell bipolar type PC bp and AEM PC Acid 60 | n.s. | 99.6 | n.s. | Separation of boron and lithium from aqueous solution | Not specified energy consumption | [19] |
CV = 30 V | CLi+ = 340 mg/L Cboron = 1000 mg/L | Neosepta BP-1E Neosepra CMB Neosepta AHA | n.s. | 94.7 | 7.9 kWh/m3 | Separation of boron and lithium from aqueous solution | Higher energy consumption than in classic ED | [88] | |
CV = 6 V | Neospeta CMX Neosepta BP-1 | n.s. | 60 | n.s. | Recovery lithium from lithium manganese oxide by BMED | Multistage processes with pre-treatment and desorption | [69] | ||
CC = 20–60 mA/cm2 | n.s. | JAM-II-05 JCM-II-05 Neosepta CMX Neosepta BP-1 | n.s. | n.s. | n.s. | Application Electro-electrodialysis bipolar membrane for production lithium carbonate | [89] | ||
Electrodialysis for LIBs | CLi = 3.27 g/L CAl = 0.23 g/L CCo = 0.46 g/L CCu = 0.68 g/L CMn = 0.28 g/L CNi = 0.25 g/L CZn = 0.78 g/L CCl = 17.5 g/L | DuPont Nafion-117 | n.s. | 90 | 27 Wh/gLi+ | Application ED for lithium battery spent utilization | Mulistage process with purification, precipitation, dissolution, electrodialysis and ion exchange reaction | [85] | |
CLi = 1.3 g/L CCo = 1.2 g/L CEDTA = 9 g/L | Selemion CMV Selemion AMV Neosepta BP-1E | n.s. | 99 | n.s. | High ratio of separation Li and Co | Application a chelating agent | [86] | ||
CV = 5 V | CLi = 0.1 g/L CCo = 0.3 g/L | PC-MVK PC-MVA | n.s. | 99.4 | n.s. | Scaling of IEMs | [87] |
CDI Configuration | Sources of Li+ | Selective Element of CDI Cell | Electrical Mode | Concentration of Feed Composition [mg/L] | SAC [mg/g] | Energy Consumption [Wh/gLi+] | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Membrane with lithium adsorbent incorporation | CV = 3.5 V | CLiOH = 60 | 8.7 | n.s. | [104] |
MCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Modified cathode with LiMn2O4 | CV = 1.0 V | CLiOH = 50 | 24 | n.s. | [105] |
MCDI | Simulated Atacama brine | Modified cathode with LiMn2O4 | CV=1.0 V | CLi+ = 1.35 CNa+ = 7590 CK+ = 17.9 CMg2+ = 9.6 CCa2+ = 1.6 | 0.0022 | 23.3 | [106] |
MCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Monovalent selective membrane, CIMS Neosepta | CV = 0.6–1.4 V | CLi+ = 37 | n.s. | 0.36 | [107] |
HCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Modified cathode by lithium titanium manganese oxide | CV = 0.7 V | CLi+ = 63.9 | 33.4 | n.s. | [108] |
HCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Modified cathode by lithium titanium manganese oxide | CV = 2.5 V | CLi+ = 63.9 | 40 | n.s. | [94,109] |
HCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Modified cathode by lithium titanium manganese oxide | CC = 10 A/m2 | CLi+ = 63.9 | 30–40 | n.s. | [110] |
HCDI | Brine model solution without acid | Modified cathode by lithium titanium manganese oxide with different ratio of titanium oxide | CV = 1 V | CLi+ = 63.9 | 36 | 120 Wh/m3 | [98,111] |
HCDI | Real geothermal multicomponent solution | Modified cathode by lithium titanium manganese oxide with 5% of titanium dioxide | CV = 2 V | CLi+ = 15.7 CNa+ = 10,298 CK+ = 102.1 CMg2+ = 50.3 CCa2+ = 63.7 CSr2+ = 33.5 | 800 (total) | 0.183 Wh/g | [7] |
HCDI | Model geothermal multicomponent solution | Modified cathode by lithium iron manganese oxide with different ratio of Li/Mn, and Li/Fe | CC = 0.7 A/m2 | CLi+ = 25.9 CNa+ = 5895 CK+ = 29.6 CMg2+ = 24 CCa2+ = 16 | 318 (total) | n.s. | [101] |
FCDI | rGO/LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 | CV = 3.3–4.5 V | CLi+ = 3.67 CNa+ = 11 CK+ = 1.2 CMg2+ = 5 CCa2+ = 0.015 | 13.84 | 0.22 Wh/gLI+ | [112] |
Hybrid Processes | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Electrodialysis–Reverse osmosis (ED-RO) |
|
|
Ion exchange adsorption–ultrafiltration |
|
|
Adsorptive ion exchange membrane |
|
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Membrane distillation crystallization |
|
|
Leaching–flotation–precipitation process |
|
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Membrane electrolysis |
|
|
MOF-based membrane |
|
|
Pervaporation |
|
|
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Siekierka, A.; Bryjak, M.; Razmjou, A.; Kujawski, W.; Nikoloski, A.N.; Dumée, L.F. Electro-Driven Materials and Processes for Lithium Recovery—A Review. Membranes 2022, 12, 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12030343
Siekierka A, Bryjak M, Razmjou A, Kujawski W, Nikoloski AN, Dumée LF. Electro-Driven Materials and Processes for Lithium Recovery—A Review. Membranes. 2022; 12(3):343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12030343
Chicago/Turabian StyleSiekierka, Anna, Marek Bryjak, Amir Razmjou, Wojciech Kujawski, Aleksandar N. Nikoloski, and Ludovic F. Dumée. 2022. "Electro-Driven Materials and Processes for Lithium Recovery—A Review" Membranes 12, no. 3: 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12030343