Dietary Antioxidants, Quality of Nutrition and Cardiovascular Characteristics among Omnivores, Flexitarians and Vegetarians in Poland—The Results of Multicenter National Representative Survey WOBASZ
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Population and Data Selection
2.2. Assessment of Dietary Patterns and Nutrition
2.3. Assessment of Cardiovascular Characteristics
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sociodemographic Characteristics | Women n = 7159 | Men n = 6159 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Omnivores N = 6515 | Flexitarians N = 630 | Vegetarians N = 12 | p Value | Omnivores N = 5797 | Flexitarians N = 352 | Vegetarians N = 9 | p Value | |
Age groups, n (%) | ||||||||
<35 years | 1630 (25.0) | 155 (24.6) * | 7 (58.3) | <0.001 | 1505 (26.0) | 68 (19.3) * | 3 (33.3) | <0.05 |
35–64 years | 3856 (59.2) | 336 (53.3) * | 4 (33.3) | 3399 (58.6) | 221 (62.8) * | 6 (66.7) | ||
>64 years | 1029 (15.8) | 139 (22.1) * | 1 (8.3) | 893 (15.4) | 63 (17.9) * | 0 (0.0) | ||
Educational level, n (%) | ||||||||
Elementary | 1413 (21.7) * | 156 (24.8) * | 2 (18.2) | >0.05 | 1061 (18.3) * | 82 (23.4) * | 0 (0.0) | <0.05 |
Secondary | 3821 (58.7) * | 343 (54.5) * | 6 (54.5) | 3863 (66.7) * | 222 (63.4) * | 6 (66.7) | ||
University | 1272 (19.6) * | 130 (20.7) * | 3 (27.3) | 867 (15.0) * | 46 (13.2) * | 3 (33.3) | ||
Marital status, n (%) | ||||||||
Single | 885 (13.6) * | 115 (18.3) * | 8 (72.7) | <0.001 | 1287 (22.2) * | 73 (20.8) * | 4 (44.4) | <0.05 |
Married | 4444 (68.2) * | 357 (56.8) * | 3 (27.3) | 4135 (71.4) * | 242 (68.9) * | 4 (44.4) | ||
Divorced | 331 (5.1) * | 58 (9.2) * | 0 (0.0) | 199 (3.4) * | 20 (5.7) * | 1 (11.1) | ||
Widowed | 850 (13.1) * | 99 (15.7) * | 0 (0.0) | 172 (3.0) * | 16 (4.6) * | 0 (0.0) |
Women | Men | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | |
Energy, kcal | 1702.8 ± 665.9 a,* | 1480.9 ± 670.4 * | 1532.1 ± 512.6 | 2413.5 ± 993.1 a,* | 2080.0 ± 879.8 * | 2066.5 ± 989.9 |
Total protein, g | 59.8 ± 24.7 a,b,* | 51.3 ± 24.1 * | 41.9 ± 18.7 | 86.1 ± 37.7 a,b,* | 71.0 ± 30.2 * | 51.5 ± 14.3 |
Protein (%) | 14 | 13.9 | 10.9 | 14.3 | 13.7 | 10 |
Animal protein, g | 38.0 ± 20.4 a,b,* | 31.4 ± 19.6 * | 16.5 ± 10.7 c | 56.1 ± 31.1 a,b,* | 44.5 ± 24.9 * | 20.6 ± 12.9 c |
Plant protein, g | 21.8 ± 8.8 a,* | 20.0 ± 9.6 * | 25.5 ± 10.6 c | 30.0 ± 12.7 a,* | 26.5 ± 11.5 * | 30.9 ± 12.0 |
Carbohydrates, g | 229.2 ± 92.6 a,* | 207.1 ± 99.4 * | 254.6 ± 102.3 | 302.0 ± 125.0 a,* | 271.1 ± 119.1 * | 296.1 ± 119.7 |
Total fat, g | 67.4 ± 34.2 a,b,* | 55.8 ± 32.5 * | 44.3 ± 30.3 | 101.1 ± 53.5 a,* | 82.1 ± 44.6 * | 82.0 ± 63.8 |
Fat (%) | 35.4 * | 33.9 * | 26.0 | 37.7 * | 35.5 * | 35.6 |
SFA, g | 25.4 ± 14.2 a,* | 21.3 ± 13.3 * | 16.9 ± 11.5 | 37.2 ± 21.8 a,* | 30.8 ± 19.1 * | 35.6 ± 33.0 |
MUFA, g | 26.6 ± 14.9 a,b,* | 21.6 ± 14.1 * | 14.1 ± 10.6 * | 41.4 ± 23.8 a,* | 33.2 ± 19.3 * | 30.3 ± 23.0 * |
PUFA, g | 10.3 ± 6.9 a,b,* | 8.5 ± 6.7 * | 9.5 ± 9.2 | 14.9 ± 9.6 a,* | 12.0 ± 8.5 * | 10.6 ± 6.8 |
Linoleic acid, g | 8.7 ± 6.1 a,* | 7.1 ± 5.8 * | 8.5 ± 8.5 | 12.5 ± 8.4 a,* | 10.0 ± 7.5 * | 8.6 ± 5.5 |
α-linolenic acid, g | 1.4 ± 1.1 a,* | 1.2 ± 1.1 * | 1.1 ± 1.1 | 2.0 ± 1.5 a,* | 1.7 ± 1.3 * | 1.9 ± 1.5 |
Cholesterol, mg | 235.0 ± 155.0 a,b,* | 201.3 ± 153.0 * | 90.3 ± 59.4 c,* | 350.5 ± 238.2 a,* | 286.0 ± 198.9 * | 216.2 ± 223.1 * |
Fiber, g | 17.4 ± 7.6 a,* | 15.9 ± 8.2 * | 17.4 ± 10.1 | 22.2 ± 9.7 a,* | 20.0 ± 9.4 * | 23.2 ± 11.3 |
Women | Men | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | |
Fresh vegetables, g | 181.0 ± 150.4 a,* | 161.8 ± 148.4 | 130.3 ± 86.0 * | 202.1 ± 179.4 a,* | 171.3 ± 188.3 | 346.3 ± 342.1 * |
Frozen vegetables, g | 5.7 ± 39.3 a | 10.8 ± 56.8 | 0.0 | 4.4 ± 35.5 | 5.2 ± 43.1 | 5.6 ± 16.7 |
Legumes, g | 3.0 ± 13.5* | 3.5 ± 15.9 | 10.8 ± 18.0 | 5.2 ± 20.6 * | 4.3 ± 18.0 | 0.0 |
Potatoes, g | 221.8 ± 216.7 a,* | 182.0 ± 224.2 * | 134.1 ± 166.9 | 314.7 ± 286.0 a,* | 283.7 ± 268.9 * | 153.1 ± 208.7 |
Processed vegetables, g | 24.2 ± 45.8 a,* | 18.4 ± 43.6 * | 7.5 ± 15.6 | 34.4 ± 61.7 * | 37.1 ± 71.4 * | 20.2 ± 29.9 |
Breakfast cereals, g | 4.7 ± 16.8 * | 5.3 ± 17.6 | 8.3 ± 28.9 | 2.7 ± 14.6 * | 4.0 ± 18.0 | 0.0 |
Dinner cereals, g | 5.7 ± 45.7 * | 3.5 ± 28.9 | 0.0 | 10.2 ± 71.5 * | 4.3 ± 57.6 | 0.0 |
Fresh fruit, g | 212.8 ± 227.6 a,* | 197.4 ± 245.0 | 188.6 ± 301.2 | 181.6 ± 233.6 a,* | 166.6 ± 225.4 | 242.6 ± 256.6 |
Frozen fruit, g | 0.09 ± 2.9 | 0.00 | 0.67 ± 2.3 | 0.04 ± 1.78 | 0.57 ± 10.7 | 0.00 |
Dried fruit, g | 0.44 ± 5.8 | 0.62 ± 7.9 | 0.00 | 0.28 ± 4.8 | 0.51 ± 6.9 | 8.89 ± 26.7 |
Juices, mL | 48.1 ± 133.0 | 41.5 ± 138.8 | 45.8 ± 107.6 | 46.9 ± 152.4 | 37.4 ± 126.5 | 47.2 ± 103.4 |
Wine, mL | 1.26 ± 16.1 * | 0.56 ± 8.2 * | 0.00 | 4.47 ± 59.3 * | 10.0 ± 88.2 * | 11.1 ± 33.3 |
Beer, mL | 7.33 ± 65.2 * | 7.26 ± 64.1 * | 25.0 ± 86.6 | 75.59 ± 259.2 * | 73.81 ± 245.5 * | 55.56 ± 166.7 |
Tea, mL | 336.9 ± 251.9 a,* | 305.8 ± 251.8 * | 285.0 ± 278.5 | 375.0 ± 287.3 * | 382.9 ± 304.0 * | 434.4 ± 351.6 |
Coffee, mL | 184.6 ± 183.4 a,* | 167.9 ± 196.8 * | 183.3 ± 414.7 | 155.5 ± 188.3 a,* | 134.3 ± 194.9 * | 118.9 ± 124.3 |
Nuts, g | 1.28 ± 11.8 | 0.98 ± 7.8 | 0.25 ± 0.86 | 1.39 ± 12.1 | 1.31 ± 10.6 | 6.67 ± 20.0 |
Seeds, g | 0.44 ± 4.9 | 0.34 ± 4.0 | 0.00 | 0.33 ± 5.6 | 0.34 ± 5.4 | 0.00 |
Groats, g | 5.82 ± 17.4 * | 6.01 ± 17.4 | 5.70 ± 12.2 | 6.58 ± 22.0 * | 6.24 ± 21.9 | 9.50 ± 22.7 |
Wholemeal bread, g | 22.78 ± 46.8 | 18.82 ± 42.0 | 22.50 ± 41.4 | 22.02 ± 60.1 | 21.00 ± 64.1 | 25.00 ± 49.7 |
Women | Men | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | |
Potassium, mg | 2826.6 ± 1120.6 a,* | 2464.3 ± 1164.2 * | 2249.6 ± 1068.8 | 3533.4 ± 1442.2 a,* | 3088.4 ± 1295.5 * | 2582.1 ± 1415.4 |
Phosphorus, mg | 952.9 ± 388.2 a,* | 849.1 ± 385.2 * | 835.8 ± 419.9 | 1292.4 ± 555.8 a,* | 1115.6 ± 462.3 * | 916.2 ± 265.9 |
Magnesium, mg | 232.3 ± 91.4 a,* | 206.8 ± 93.3 * | 222.4 ± 87.9 | 298.5 ± 120.0 a, * | 268.7 ± 113.8 * | 257.2 ± 143.7 |
Iron, mg | 9.3 ± 4.3 a,* | 8.2 ± 4.4 * | 7.8 ± 3.3 | 12.8 ± 6.6 a,* | 10.7 ± 4.6 * | 10.0 ± 5.0 |
Zinc, mg | 8.0 ± 3.3 a,* | 6.9 ± 3.2 * | 6.0 ± 2.4 | 11.6 ± 5.1 a,* | 9.6 ± 4.0 * | 7.7 ± 2.7 |
Copper, mg | 0.99 ± 0.4 a,* | 0.90 ± 0.4 * | 0.95 ± 0.4 | 1.24 ± 0.5 a,* | 1.08 ± 0.5 * | 1.06 ± 0.6 |
Manganese, mg | 3.8 ± 1.8 a,* | 3.5 ± 1.8 * | 3.7 ± 1.9 | 4.7 ± 2.2 a,* | 4.4 ± 2.3 * | 5.0 ± 2.4 |
Vitamin A, µg | 1001.4 ± 1773.7 * | 1006.3 ± 1850.8 | 538.7 ± 451.0 * | 1296.9 ± 2698.0 a,* | 916.6 ± 706.8 | 1113.1 ± 734.9 * |
Vitamin C, mg | 79.7 ± 75.2 a | 75.6 ± 82.2 | 66.4 ± 64.7 | 80.2 ± 78.3 a | 69.2 ± 68.7 | 142.4 ± 125.0 |
Vitamin E, mg | 9.2 ± 5.7 a,* | 7.8 ± 5.4 * | 8.4 ± 7.1 | 12.0 ± 7.6 a,* | 10.2 ± 7.1 * | 13.0 ± 8.3 |
Vitamin D, µg | 2.58 ± 3.3 a,b,* | 2.29 ± 3.3 * | 1.03 ± 1.8 c | 4.13 ± 4.9 a,b,* | 3.57 ± 4.9 * | 1.98 ± 2.2 |
Vitamin B1, mg | 0.98 ± 0.5 a,* | 0.81 ± 0.4 * | 0.75 ± 0.4 | 1.52 ± 0.8 a,* | 1.20 ± 0.6 * | 0.83 ± 0.3 |
Vitamin B2, mg | 1.27 ± 0.7 a,* | 1.17 ± 0.6 * | 0.91 ± 0.5 | 1.67 ± 1.0 a,b,* | 1.43 ± 0.7 * | 1.09 ± 0.4 c |
Niacin, mg | 14.2 ± 7.5 a,b,* | 11.2 ± 6.7 * | 7.1 ± 2.1 c | 21.0 ± 11.2 a,b,* | 16.4 ± 8.7 * | 9.3 ± 3.9 |
Vitamin B6, mg | 1.55 ± 0.7 a,b,* | 1.30 ± 0.7 * | 1.02 ± 0.6 | 2.13 ± 0.9 a,* | 1.80 ± 0.8 * | 1.33 ± 0.8 |
Folate, µg | 220.5 ± 102.1 a,* | 203.0 ± 100.3 * | 213.6 ± 115.4 | 277.8 ± 134.6 a,b,* | 248.7 ± 110.2 * | 287.8 ± 144.2 |
Vitamin B12, µg | 3.25 ± 6.7 a,b,* | 2.91 ± 4.6 * | 1.18 ± 1.0 c | 5.13 ± 13.1 a,* | 4.07 ± 9.7 * | 1.55 ± 0.8 |
Micronutrients | Recommended Dietary Intake (Men/Women) | Proportion of Subjects Consuming Recommended Amounts, % | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | Men | ||||||||
Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | p Value | Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | p Value | ||
Potassium, mg | ≥4700 | 5.7 * | 3.3 * | 0.0 | <0.05 | 18.8 * | 12.2 * | 11.1 | <0.01 |
Calcium, mg | 19–50 years ≥ 800; above 50 years ≥ 1000 | 10.9 * | 11.9 * | 25.0 | >0.05 | 17.8 * | 16.8 * | 33.3 | >0.05 |
Phosphorus, mg | ≥700 | 73.2 * | 60.8 * | 50.0 | <0.001 | 89.3 * | 82.1 * | 88.9 | <0.001 |
Magnesium, mg | ≥350/265 | 30.6 * | 23.2 | 41.7 | <0.001 | 28.0 * | 21.0 | 22.2 | <0.05 |
Iron, mg | ≥18/10 | 33.3 * | 26.0 * | 41.7 | <0.001 | 12.8 * | 6.8 * | 11.1 | <0.01 |
Zinc, mg | ≥11/8 | 43.0 * | 30.0 | 25.0 | <0.001 | 48.1 * | 31.5 | 11.1 | <0.001 |
Copper, mg | ≥0.7 | 76.1 * | 63.2 * | 66.7 | <0.001 | 88.1 * | 80.1 * | 66.7 | <0.001 |
Manganese, mg | 2.3/1.8 | 92.1 | 85.1 | 83.3 | <0.001 | 91.2 | 85.8 | 88.9 | <0.01 |
Vitamin A, µg | ≥630/500 | 74.8 | 70.2 | 50.0 | <0.01 | 74.1 | 69.9 | 77.8 | >0.05 |
Vitamin E, mg | ≥10/8 | 50.0 * | 37.5 | 41.7 | <0.001 | 52.4 * | 39.5 | 66.7 | <0.001 |
Vitamin B1, mg | ≥1.1/0.9 | 48.6 * | 34.4 * | 50.0 | <0.001 | 66.0 * | 50.3 * | 11.1 | <0.001 |
Vitamin B2, mg | ≥1.1/0.9 | 71.5 * | 62.4 | 41.7 | <0.001 | 74.7 * | 64.2 | 44.4 | <0.001 |
Niacin, mg | ≥16/14 | 42.1 * | 25.6 * | 0.0 | <0.001 | 63.0 * | 43.7 * | 0.0 | <0.001 |
Vitamin B6, mg | ≥1.1/1.3 | 60.5 * | 45.2 * | 33.3 | <0.001 | 88.4 * | 82.4 * | 44.4 | <0.001 |
Vitamin C, mg | ≥75/60 | 48.3 * | 44.3 * | 41.7 | >0.05 | 38.3 * | 32.4 * | 66.7 | >0.05 |
Folate, µg | ≥320 | 12.6 * | 11.3 * | 16.7 | >0.05 | 29.8 * | 21.3 * | 33.3 | <0.01 |
Vitamin B12, µg | ≥2 | 50.2 * | 45.9 * | 25.0 | >0.05 | 68.5 * | 63.1 * | 33.3 | <0.01 |
Vitamin D, µg | ≥10 | 2.5 * | 2.9 * | 0.0 | >0.05 | 6.1 * | 6.0 * | 0.0 | >0.05 |
Cardiovascular Characteristics | Women | Men | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | Omnivores | Flexitarians | Vegetarians | |
Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 128.78 ± 20.8 * | 130.49 ± 22.3 * | 129.08 ± 18.7 | 136.15 ± 18.6 * | 138.93 ± 20.9 * | 129.0 ± 10.8 |
Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 80.38 ± 11.4 * | 81.34 ± 11.9 * | 82.25 ± 10.0 | 82.82 ± 11.4 * | 83.30 ± 12.3 * | 81.06 ± 8.8 |
Current smoking, n (%) | 1399 (21.5) * | 146 (23.3) * | 4 (36.4) | 2005 (34.6) * | 128 (36.6) * | 1 (11.1) |
Physical activity, n (%) | ||||||
4–7 times/week | 1975 (30.3) * | 184 (29.2) | 1 (8.3) * | 1934 (33.4) * | 119 (33.8) | 4 (44.4) * |
2–3 times/week | 886 (13.6) * | 90 (14.3) | 1 (8.3) * | 824 (14.2) * | 38 (10.8) | 3 (33.3) * |
Less or no PA | 3654 (56.1) * | 356 (56.5) | 10 (83.4) * | 3039 (52.4) * | 195 (55.4) | 2 (22.3) * |
Body mass index, kg/m2 | 26.5 ± 5.7 * | 26.6 ± 5.7 | 21.9 ± 3.1 a,b | 26.9 ± 4.5 * | 26.8 ± 4.9 | 25.2 ± 4.5 |
Waist circumference, cm | 86.8 ± 14.1 * | 87.1 ± 14.3 * | 76.0 ± 5.9 a,b,* | 96.0 ± 12.3 * | 96.2 ± 12.7 * | 91.3 ± 9.8 * |
Glucose, mmol/L | 5.13 ± 1.4 * | 5.06 ± 1.3 * | 4.29 ± 0.5 a,b | 5.35 ± 1.5 * | 5.32 ± 1.3 * | 4.77 ± 0.5 |
Total cholesterol, mmol/L | 5.32 ± 1.2 | 5.27 ± 1.2 | 4.65 ± 1.5 | 5.32 ± 1.2 | 5.33 ± 1.3 | 5.32 ± 1.2 |
LDL-C, mmol/L | 3.17 ± 1.0 * | 3.12 ± 1.1 | 2.68 ± 1.2 | 3.21 ± 1.0 * | 3.22 ± 1.1 | 3.05 ± 1.0 |
HDL-C, mmol/L | 1.54 ± 0.4 * | 1.56 ± 0.4 * | 1.47 ± 0.5 | 1.35 ± 0.5 * | 1.36 ± 0.5 * | 1.37 ± 0.4 |
Triglycerides, mmol/L | 1.35 ± 0.9 * | 1.28 ± 0.6 * | 1.08 ± 0.3 * | 1.71 ± 1.6 * | 1.63 ± 1.1 * | 1.94 ± 1.1 * |
Obesity, n (%) | 1560 (23.9) * | 162 (25.7) | 0 | 1244 (21.5) * | 79 (22.4) | 1 (11.1) |
Hypertension, n (%) | 1725 (26.5) * | 189 (30.0) * | 2 (16.7) | 2113 (36.5) * | 151 (42.9) * | 1 (11.1) |
Hypercholesterolemia, n (%) | 3384 (51.9) * | 316 (50.2) | 5 (41.7) | 3118 (53.8) * | 187 (53.1) | 5 (55.5) |
Diabetes, n (%) | 465 (7.1) * | 41 (6.5) | 0 | 471 (8.1) * | 27 (7.7) | 0 (0.0) |
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Kwaśniewska, M.; Pikala, M.; Grygorczuk, O.; Waśkiewicz, A.; Stepaniak, U.; Pająk, A.; Kozakiewicz, K.; Nadrowski, P.; Zdrojewski, T.; Puch-Walczak, A.; et al. Dietary Antioxidants, Quality of Nutrition and Cardiovascular Characteristics among Omnivores, Flexitarians and Vegetarians in Poland—The Results of Multicenter National Representative Survey WOBASZ. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12020222
Kwaśniewska M, Pikala M, Grygorczuk O, Waśkiewicz A, Stepaniak U, Pająk A, Kozakiewicz K, Nadrowski P, Zdrojewski T, Puch-Walczak A, et al. Dietary Antioxidants, Quality of Nutrition and Cardiovascular Characteristics among Omnivores, Flexitarians and Vegetarians in Poland—The Results of Multicenter National Representative Survey WOBASZ. Antioxidants. 2023; 12(2):222. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12020222
Chicago/Turabian StyleKwaśniewska, Magdalena, Małgorzata Pikala, Oliwia Grygorczuk, Anna Waśkiewicz, Urszula Stepaniak, Andrzej Pająk, Krystyna Kozakiewicz, Paweł Nadrowski, Tomasz Zdrojewski, Aleksandra Puch-Walczak, and et al. 2023. "Dietary Antioxidants, Quality of Nutrition and Cardiovascular Characteristics among Omnivores, Flexitarians and Vegetarians in Poland—The Results of Multicenter National Representative Survey WOBASZ" Antioxidants 12, no. 2: 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12020222
APA StyleKwaśniewska, M., Pikala, M., Grygorczuk, O., Waśkiewicz, A., Stepaniak, U., Pająk, A., Kozakiewicz, K., Nadrowski, P., Zdrojewski, T., Puch-Walczak, A., Tykarski, A., & Drygas, W. (2023). Dietary Antioxidants, Quality of Nutrition and Cardiovascular Characteristics among Omnivores, Flexitarians and Vegetarians in Poland—The Results of Multicenter National Representative Survey WOBASZ. Antioxidants, 12(2), 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12020222