Operational Modal Analysis of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Measure of 2-Month Exercise Intervention Effects in Sedentary Older Adults with Diabetes and Cognitive Impairment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Development of the 2-Month Exercise Intervention
2.3. Sample Size
2.4. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.5. Experimental Test Protocol
2.5.1. Recruitment
2.5.2. Pre- and Post-Intervention Measurements
Pre-Intervention Cognitive Performance
Cerebral Oxygenation Measures
Muscle Oxygenation Measures
Cognitive and Physical Function Tasks
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics | T2DM Intervention Group at Baseline N (%) or Mean (Standard Deviation) | Sedentary Healthy (SH) Control Group N (%) or Mean (Standard Deviation) | Active Healthy (AH) Control Group N (%) or Mean (Standard Deviation) | F or χ2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 66.1 (4.5) | 66.6 (4.2) | 65.9 (4.2) | F = 0.055 (p = 0.947) |
BMI | 34.8 (4.8) | 33.3 (5.3) | 26.1 (4.3) *** | F = 18.775 *** (p < 0.001) T2DM vs. AH |
Sex | ||||
Male | 10 (50.0%) | 10 (50.0%) | 10 (50.0%) | χ2 = 1.0 |
Female | 10 (50.0%) | 10 (50.0%) | 10 (50.0%) | (p = 1.000) |
Ethnicity | ||||
Hispanic | 3 (15.0%) * | 0 | 0 | |
Non-Hispanic | 17 (85.0%) | 100 (100.0%) | 100 (100.0%) | χ2 = 6.316 * (p = 0.043) |
Race | ||||
White | 14 (70.0%) | 17 (85.0%) | 19 (95.0%) | |
Black/African American | 5 (25.0%) | 1 (5.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | χ2 = 8.260 (p = 0.083) |
Other | 1 (3.0%) | 2 (10.0%) | 1 (5.0%) | |
Living status | ||||
Alone | 4 (20.0%) | 9 (45.0%) | 5 (25.0%) | χ2 = 3.333 |
With someone | 16 (80.0%) | 11 (55.0%) | 15 (75.0%) | (p = 0.189) |
Marital Status Single Married Widowed Separated/Divorced | 2 (10.0%) 15 (75.0%) 1 (5.0%) 2 (10.0%) | 5 (25.0%) 9 (45.0%) 2 (10.0%) 4 (20.0%) | 6 (30.0%) 11 (55.0%) 1 (5.0%) 2 (10.0%) | χ2 = 5.100 (p = 0.513) |
Home Ownership | ||||
Rent | 2 (10.0%) | 2 (10.0%) | 2 (10.0%) | χ2 = 2.038 |
Own | 17 (85.0%) | 18 (90.0%) | 18 (90.0%) | (p = 0.729) |
Other | 1 (5.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
Work Status | ||||
Full Time | 5 (25.0%) | 7 (35.0%) | 6 (30.0%) | |
Part time | 5 (25.0%) | 3 (15.0%) | 2 (10.0%) | χ2 = 3.333 |
Retired | 9 (45.0%) | 9 (45.0%) | 12 (60.0%) | (p = 0.737) |
Unemployed | 1 (5.0%) | 1 (5.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
Income | ||||
Very Comfortable | 4 (20.0%) | 6 (30.0%) | 10 (50.0%) | |
Comfortable | 14 (70.0%) | 13 (65.0%) | 9 (45.0%) | χ2 = 5.967 |
Uncomfortable | 1 (5.0%) | 1 (5.0%) | 1 (5.0%) | (p = 0.427) |
Not comfortable at all | 1 (5.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
Education | ||||
High School | 3 (15.0%) | 2 (10.0%) | 5 (25.0%) | |
2 Year College | 9 (45.0%) | 8 (40.0%) | 1 (5.0%) | |
BS/BA | 3 (15.0%) | 5 (25.0%) | 3 (15.0%) | χ2 = 12.261 |
MA/MS | 4 (20.0%) | 3 (15.0%) | 8 (40.0%) | (p = 0.140) |
More Advanced Degree | 1 (5.0%) | 2 (10.0%) | 3 (15.0%) |
Characteristics | Intervention Group at Baseline Mean (Standard Deviation) | Control Group Mean (Standard Deviation) | Z | Cohen’s d |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mini-Cog | 12.79 (2.1) | 14.16 (0.9) | Z = 3.273 ** (p = 0.0005) | d = 0.967 |
Trail Making Part A (s) | 39.55 (12.1) | 30.94 (6.8) | Z = 2.548 ** (p = 0.006) | d = 0.972 |
Trail Making Part B (s) | 93.45 (26.58) | 69.08 (21.3) | Z = 3.293 *** (p < 0.001) | d = 1.053 |
Characteristics | Baseline M(SD) | Follow-Up M (SD) | t or Z | Cohen’s d |
---|---|---|---|---|
SmO2 drop during BHR test (%) | 13.21 (7.5) | 17.33 (11.6) | t = 2.185 * (p = 0.022) | d = −0.515 |
SmO2 drop during 6MWT (%) | 17.14 (9.1) | 22.70 (15.4) | t = 1.845 * (p = 0.041) | d = −0.435 |
BHR SmO2 recovery speed (%/s) | 0.1846 (0.071) | 0.2189 (0.107) | t = 1.714 (p = 0.052) | d = −0.404 |
6MWT SmO2 recovery speed (%/s) | 0.1302 (0.087) | 0.1760 (0.174) | t = 1.094 (p = 0.145) | d = −0.258 |
AAL Region | Source | Detector | Type | Factor | p | q |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.999999981 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.083678248 | 0.205977227 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.947160368 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.000314435 | 0.001437418 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.999987864 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.003211619 | 0.012846478 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 1.97 × 10−10 | 3.15 × 10−9 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.999999039 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.064006828 | 0.170684874 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.994658711 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 1.82 × 10−5 | 9.70 × 10−5 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.375322014 | 0.720721989 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 6.15 × 10−7 | 4.92 × 10−6 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.999999845 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 3.44 × 10−6 | 2.20 × 10−5 |
AAL Region | Source | Detector | Type | Factor | p | q |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.6481 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.00587 | 0.01879 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.78319 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.62103 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.97924 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 2.39 × 10−6 | 8.50 × 10−6 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 2.15 × 10−6 | 8.50 × 10−6 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.7415 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.99998 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.56073 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 7.59 × 10−8 | 3.47 × 10−7 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.99781 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.56618 | 1 |
AAL Region | Source | Detector | Type | Factor | p | q |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.99999259 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.056004 | 0.17322566 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_R | 1 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.00543628 | 0.04349027 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.99999952 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.01244236 | 0.05687937 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_R | 3 | 1 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 8.41 × 10−12 | 1.35 × 10−10 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.09426186 | 0.2320292 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.06495962 | 0.17322566 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 0.97629652 | 1 |
Frontal_Inf_Tri_L | 5 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.28616516 | 0.57233033 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘cond’ | 0.01672316 | 0.06689266 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbo’ | ‘group’ | 0.96488565 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘cond’ | 1 | 1 |
Frontal_Sup_L | 7 | 2 | ‘hbr’ | ‘group’ | 0.04105912 | 0.14598797 |
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Zhao, F.; Tomita, M.; Dutta, A. Operational Modal Analysis of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Measure of 2-Month Exercise Intervention Effects in Sedentary Older Adults with Diabetes and Cognitive Impairment. Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 1099. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13071099
Zhao F, Tomita M, Dutta A. Operational Modal Analysis of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Measure of 2-Month Exercise Intervention Effects in Sedentary Older Adults with Diabetes and Cognitive Impairment. Brain Sciences. 2023; 13(7):1099. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13071099
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Fei, Machiko Tomita, and Anirban Dutta. 2023. "Operational Modal Analysis of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Measure of 2-Month Exercise Intervention Effects in Sedentary Older Adults with Diabetes and Cognitive Impairment" Brain Sciences 13, no. 7: 1099. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13071099