Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂) Emitted from Traffic-Related Sources: Review

Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) remains one of the most relevant traffic-related air pollutants in urban environments, despite decades of regulatory efforts and advances in vehicle emission control technologies. This review synthesizes current knowledge on ambient NO₂ concentrations associated with road transport, identifies key determinants of spatial and temporal variability, and evaluates the effectiveness of mitigation approaches under increasingly stringent air quality standards. The study is based on a comprehensive review of peer-reviewed literature reporting NO₂ measurements in urban, traffic, and background environments worldwide, complemented by an assessment of regulatory frameworks and mitigation strategies. The evidence confirms that road transport is the dominant contributor to elevated NO₂ concentrations, particularly at traffic sites, with traffic intensity, fleet composition, driving behavior, cold-start emissions, and street geometry emerging as primary controlling factors. Meteorological conditions influence dispersion but generally play a secondary role compared with emission-related drivers. Urban infrastructure, especially street canyons and tunnels, amplifies near-road NO₂ levels and population exposure. Mitigation measures such as Low Emission Zones, vehicle fleet modernization, and infrastructural interventions can reduce NO₂ concentrations, but their effectiveness is moderate and highly context-dependent. Sustained compliance with EU limit values and World Health Organization guideline levels requires integrated, multi-scale mitigation strategies.