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Review

E-Waste Challenges in India: Environmental and Human Health Impacts

by
Sarita Kumari Sandwal
1,†,
Rakshit Jakhar
2,† and
Katarzyna Styszko
2,*
1
School of Inter-Disciplinary and Trans-Disciplinary Studies (SOITS), Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi 110068, India
2
Faculty of Energy and Fuels, AGH University of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4350; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084350
Submission received: 4 March 2025 / Revised: 31 March 2025 / Accepted: 5 April 2025 / Published: 15 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Advances in Environmental Engineering: Approaches to the Management and Treatment of Water, Air and Waste)
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Abstract

:
E-waste, or electronic waste, refers to discarded electronic devices and components, and the management of e-waste has become a newly arising and challenging issue both in India and globally. Due to the increase in population, urbanization, global demand, and expansion of the digital infrastructure, generation of electronic waste is increasing annually. This study provides a comprehensive and thoroughly reviewed qualitative study on electronic waste management practice. This study highlights an outline of the amount of electronic waste generation in India and the world and examines prevailing approaches in the treatment and management of electronic waste, including unsafe informal recycling and inadequate inventory control. This article focuses on major problems such as child labor, illegal dumping, poor infrastructure, limited knowledge and awareness among the public inadequate legal regulation, and spillage of various toxic heavy metals such as arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), and barium (Ba) via electronic waste. This study analyzes the harmful effects of toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic and mercury, on environmental quality and human well-being. To address these issues, this study outlines various sustainable recommendations, such as technology improvement proper collection; handling, management, and eradication of waste generated by electrical equipment in formal recycling practices; the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle) following circular economy practice, including collaboration between governmental, non-governmental, business, industries, and civil society; better legislative measures such as extended producer responsibility (EPR) and a single approach method, where collecting, sorting, and dismantling electronic waste is handled by the informal sector, while the formal sector manages extraction of metal, disposal, and recycling.

1. Introduction

“E-waste (electronic or electrical waste) is termed discarded, outdated, and malfunctioning electronic or electrical equipment” [1]. These obsolete wastes have reached the end of their functional lifespan and no longer meet the needs of the present owner. To address this, the European Union mandated a legal framework on Waste from Electronic and Electric Equipment (WEEE) to tackle the increased amount of e-waste generated through electronic and electric gadgets [2,3]. E-waste is a rapidly expanding category of solid waste creating an anticipated environmental issue globally [3].
The amount of e-waste is increasing due to driving factors such as urbanization, growing disposable incomes, enhanced mobility, industrialization, and the rapid development of information and technology [3]. Advances in science and technology have also increased consumer demand for electronic products, further amplifying this issue [4]. Figure 1 illustrates various sources of e-waste generation.
Electronic waste (e-waste) has been classified into two classes: “hazardous e-waste” and “non-hazardous e-waste”. Hazardous e-waste includes substances that are toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, mercury, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), brominated flame retardants, antimony, arsenic, and beryllium; non-hazardous-waste includes substances that do not directly impact the environment, such as glass, and plastics electronic waste and also includes valuable metals such as gold, copper, and silver. Figure 2 illustrates various toxic heavy metals incorporated into electrical equipment [5].
E-waste acts as “urban deposits” of essential, non-essential, and precious or valuable metals, which can be utilized as secondary resources through appropriate recycling practices [6]. However, managing electrical waste is an intricate and rigorous process due to the inclusion of highly toxic metals such as arsenic and cadmium in gadgets and instruments. Therefore, proper disposal procedures are essential to prevent potential injury and protect human wellness and the environment [7].
Improper disposal techniques, such as burning, informal recycling, and multifarious illegal dumping practices, can induce severe ecological problems such as soil degradation, contamination of water, and air pollution [8]. Toxic metals such as arsenic, chromium, and mercury can easily seep into the soil, followed by infiltration into groundwater, causing environmental problems and affecting living organisms [9,10]; for example, mercury (Hg) can easily bioaccumulate in the food chain when dispersed in the environment, causing health problems like Minamata disease. Also, the extraction of raw materials from e-waste aids in the depletion of resources and aggravates environmental degradation [11,12].
“Individuals residing near low- and middle-income regions (LMICs), notably young teenagers, are at increased risk due to inadequate regulations, recycling facilities, and lack of training resources” [13]. Children and women involved in handling and management are particularly vulnerable. Lack of proper protective gear and equipment while performing recycling activity exposes workers to toxic heavy metals, resulting in dermal and skin diseases, respiratory illnesses such as lung cancer, and other health-related complications. Communities located near the dumping site are more exposed to toxic substances such as ashes, fumes, and radioactive elements [10], which can cause long-term impacts on their health, including brain and kidney damage and weakened immune systems since birth [10,11,12,13,14].
The Basel Convention is a comprehensive treaty that regulates cross-border movements and the disposal of hazardous wastes. Ratified in 1989 and becoming effective in 1992 [15], the Basel Convention organizes training sessions and programs and provides guidance on the management of electronic waste in a sustainable way. It provides the criteria to distinguish between waste and non-waste in the cross-border movement of electronic waste [13]. It seeks to protect and preserve the well-being of humans and the environment from the detrimental influences associated with generation, cross-border transportation, and handling of hazardous waste and different forms of waste [15].

2. Methodology

This study was carried out entirely with the aid of secondary data. The information was sourced from journals, news articles, government documents, websites, Internet resources, Google, research papers, Google Scholar, and Research Gate, and expert comments from peer-reviewed journals published by Springer, Nature, Wiley, Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, etc. Also, various reports and documents from organizations like World Health Organization (WHO), Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Press Information Bureau (PIB), the Basel Convention report, and ASSOCHAM-Sofies-Toxics Link (The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India) were considered for a survey of the literature. Here, through a comprehensive search for journals, academic databases, and relevant keywords associated with electronic waste, different aspects were examined, including types of electronic waste, sources of electronic waste (e-waste), various ways of managing electronic waste, current conditions of electric waste in India, impact of electrical waste on air, water, soil, and ecosystems, environmental pollution caused by electronic waste, negative repercussion of electronic waste on human well-being, India’s electronic waste statistical information, global standing regarding electronic waste, and significant challenges faced by India. A comprehensive evaluation of the existing literature was carried out from 2016 to 2024. Inclusion criteria were established to evaluate the research by relevance and publication date, covering all essential components required. This review concludes by identifying gaps in the existing literature, providing recommendations for future research, and highlighting the need for a holistic approach to e-waste management.

3. Scenario of E-Waste in India

E-waste has become an increasing issue in India, increasing at an alarming rate of approximately 2.90 Mt per year [16,17]. It poses threats to the quality of the environment and the well-being of humans [18]. The significantly large population size and its unorganized way of disposing of electronic waste pose a significant challenge for government agencies in the effective management of electronic waste [19].
India is the world’s third-leading producer of electronic waste, followed by China and the US [20,21]. Yearly, the country distributes more than 14 million refrigerators, 17 million televisions, 148 million cell phones, 19 million pieces of sound equipment, and approximately 6.5 million washing machines. Electronic waste production increased by 0.63 Mt in the financial year 2017–2018 to 1.6 Mt in the financial year 2021–2022. The anticipated pattern will persist, with an estimation of close to 14 Mt of electronic waste produced annually by 2030 [20,21].
In India, there are two main formal and informal controls for the management of electronic waste. Several practices, including collection, storage, transport, sorting, shedding, dismantling, etc., occur in an unorganized and unstructured environment [22]. Ragpickers collect and sell this electronic waste to earn a living. In India, most of the processes related to electronic waste are carried out by manual efforts of unskilled workers with inadequate equipment, instruments, machines, and technologies [23]. The techniques used for recycling and disposal are dangerous.
According to a report by the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), almost 80% of the workforce engaged in the collection of electronic waste experiences various respiratory conditions such as difficulty in inhalation, coughing, discomfort in the nasal passage, and suffocation, resulting from a lack of sufficient safety precautions without headgear, and naked hands; the workers and children do not use masks daily, and they are more exposed to toxic metals [24].
The Indian policymakers have shown awareness of the obstacles related to handling and management of electronic waste by amending the 2018 e-waste management rule [25]; the objective is to intensify the aggregation and reprocessing process, particularly for new producers, and promote environmentally friendly electronic management. The electronic waste policy was revised and enacted in April 2023, and has expanded its coverage [26]. This includes additional components, such as photovoltaic panels, that respond to the increasing demand for renewable energy sources and address the need for proper disposal. The guidelines seek to reduce hazardous pollutants in electronic equipment and implement extended producer responsibility (EPR) [20,26]. They are designed to promote sustainable electronic waste practices, reduce harmful behavior, and ensure manufacturers’ compliance with the termination stages of their products [20]. It is crucial to recognize that policy needs evolution along with societal changes and the advancement of technologies, which require continuous enhancement and adjustments. Figure 3 illustrates the accelerated trend of e-waste in India.

Global E-Waste Scenario

According to the findings of the Global E-waste Monitor 2024 report, in the year 2022, approximately 62 Mt of electronic waste was generated worldwide. Global e-waste generation has increased significantly from 30.84 Mt in 2010 to 48.61 Mt in 2019 to 62 Mt in 2022. Ever since 2010, the amount of e-waste generated annually has almost doubled, with an annual increase of 2.36 Mt. This trend anticipates an increase to 82 Mt by 2030. Of these 62 Mt, only 13.8 is officially recorded as being collected and recycled in an environmentally safe way [27,28]. Figure 4 illustrates the accelerated trend of e-waste around the world.
According to the findings of Stastita, China is the world’s largest producer of electronic waste, producing approximately 12 Mt in 2022. Following China is the United States, where about 7 Mt are produced, and India is the third-largest producer of electronic waste, producing approximately 4 Mt [29]. Figure 5 illustrates the leading countries based on their generation of e-waste.
The management of electronic waste in developing nations such as China, Nigeria, Brazil, and Indonesia presents significant challenges due to differences in their policies, infrastructure, and enforcement mechanisms. As the world’s largest producer of electronic waste, China has implemented strict regulations, including government-backed collection systems, the Circular Economy Promotion Law, and a national electronic waste recycling system to restrict informal recycling to address the problem [30]. China’s government has also banned e-waste imports since 2018, significantly reducing the country’s role as a waste disposal site [31]. On the other hand, Nigeria, which generates approximately 0.2 Mt of e-waste annually, remains a major destination for illegal e-waste imports from developed countries due to weak regulations and enforcement [3,32]. In Nigeria, the e-waste sector is highly controlled by informal recyclers, where they use crude methods such as open burning to extract valuable metals. Nigeria and Indonesia heavily depend on informal recycling of electronic waste, which carries a severe environmental and health risk due to unsafe recycling methods such as open burning and acid leaching [32]. Brazil, in contrast, has also made progress with formalized collection networks and structured recovery programs, and informal recyclers handle a significant portion of electronic waste in the informal environment [3].

4. Major Challenges Related to E-Waste-Management in India

The main challenges related to the management of electronic waste in India are presented in Figure 6.
  • Rising level of e-waste quantities: Due to the increase in population growth and urban development, the need for smart electronic devices has grown, expanding the generation [33].
  • Poor infrastructure: The existing infrastructure cannot handle increasing amounts of electronic waste, such as the absence of functional recycling plants, old and outdated recycling tools and facilities, limited collection centers, and safe disposal mechanisms and sites [34,35].
  • Informal handling and management of electronic waste: Almost 95% of e-waste is collected, handled, and managed via informal channels. Workers from marginalized sections of society work in unsafe and unhealthy conditions without using protective gear. They use rudimentary techniques, including open combustion, heating, physical dismantling, melting, and acid leaching processes, which pose critical risks to their well-being and the nearby environment [35].
  • Illegal dumping: Electronic equipment waste is primarily improperly disposed of, mainly in sanitary landfills [36]. This improper disposal releases toxic emissions and contaminants, mainly polluting nearby air, soil, and water bodies [35,36].
  • The legal regulations are weak. There are weak regulatory guidelines regarding the management of electronic waste, and there is no adequate strict enforcement of fines, penalties, and punishments for the culprits. Illegal importing of electronic waste from developed countries continues to occur.
  • Health impact: Economically poor, marginalized communities face a higher risk of exposure to potentially harmful chemicals, hazardous substances, and toxic metals such as lead (Pb), which can cause neurological disorders, and mercury (Hg), which can harm the kidney [37] and cause other problems such as skin, eye-related problems, developmental disorders, neurological disorders, and respiratory diseases.
  • Child labor: Child labor is a serious challenge in areas like Seelampur (Delhi), one of the leading centers for dismantling e-waste [38]. Young children and ragpickers scavenge in search of valuable metals, including gold, copper, and silver, unaware of the severe health problems they may face.
  • Lack of awareness: The local population lacks awareness and education about the proper disposal mechanism for electronic waste generated from household waste, resulting in increased accumulation in landfills [39].
  • Lack of information: There is limited information and understanding regarding the nature, quantity, and quality of electronic waste generated. Proper sales and purchase data records are crucial for analyzing the volume of generated electronic waste, but these are not appropriately maintained [35,36]. The authors of studies should discuss the results and how they can be interpreted from the perspective of previous studies and working hypotheses see Table 1. The findings and their implications should be addressed in the broadest possible context. Future research directions may also be highlighted.
Table 1. Previous works on challenges and elements of electronic (e-waste) management.
Table 1. Previous works on challenges and elements of electronic (e-waste) management.
SourceStudy TitleKey FindingsShortcomings
[40]E-wastes and their impact on environment and public health.The study highlights a growing issue of electronic waste, especially from discarded computers, outlining several sources about e-waste, toxic chemicals discharged along with the negative impact on human well-being and the environment.The study primarily focuses on the problem related with e-waste, but it does not provide potential solutions and specific recommendation.
[41]Health consequences of exposure to e-waste: A systematic reviewThe study consolidates multiple evidence on the adverse outcomes associated with e-waste on health, linked with its exposure to the particular setting and populations, including change in thyroid functions, neonatal adverse outcomes, change in behavior and temperament, lung damage, lower force vital capacity in young boys, sudden abortion, premature births, and DNA damage.The study mainly focuses on China, missing global issues in developing countries like India and Africa. There is a lack of detailed data on elements and their long-term exposure to health, and the study does not explore the impacts on vulnerable populations.
[37]Electronic waste and their leachates impact on human health and environment: Global ecological threat and management.The study focuses on the surge in volumes of electronic waste generation throughout the world, and leachate impact on the plants, soil microorganisms, aquatic organisms, and humans. The study also presents various traditional approaches such as biological methods to manage e-waste and retrieval of metals that are valuable such as gold, copper, and silver using methods like hydro-metallurgy and bio leaching.This study lacks updated data, detailed policy explanation, and socioeconomic analysis of e-waste management. It shows inadequate focus on public awareness, limited focus on the challenges faced by workers in informal sector, and lacks specific policy recommendation.
[42]Status of e-waste in India: A reviewThis research outlines production of electronic waste both indigenously and with outsourcing of electronic appliances after the Basel Convention. It also highlights that approximately 95% of e-waste is treated in a loose informal recycling setting because of lack of information and limited infrastructure, which endangers the environment and human healthThis study lacks global perspectives, follows limited public awareness strategies, and misses integration of informal sector with formal sector. There is a gap between actionable recommendation and implementation of e-waste management.
[43]Review on E-waste management and its impact on the environment and society.The study outlines various approaches of recycling such as acid bath and bio leaching to combat the issue. Additionally, it provides several actions and plans to tackle the issue, including lifecycle assessment to be endorsed and incorporated into most nations. International health organizations, politicians, scholars, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), along with state officials, should collaborate to handle and address health related problems caused by exposure.This study lacks detailed management practices of e-waste in India, has gaps in policy enforcement, and does not include a detailed explanation of the impact on the environment due to informal management practices.
[44]E-waste management: An emerging environmental and health issue in India.This article summarizes several initiatives regarding e-waste management that have been carried out through public private partnership, and it highlights legal regulation that has been initiated by Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) under e-waste management rules. Additionally, it also suggests many recommendations, such as a strong formal workforce with enhanced skills and strong legislative measures.This article lacks detailed explanation on how the informal e-waste management practices can impact the environment and human health.
[9]Occupational health hazards related to informal recycling of e-waste in India: An overviewThis study outlines various potential pollutants including arsenic, beryllium, furans, dioxins, lithium, and nickel, and their occupational health hazards. Additionally, it explains several disposal methods like incineration, land-filling, reuse, and recycling.This study lacks actionable recommendation on how to overcome the occupational health hazards due to the pollutants released during informal e-waste recycling practices.
[45]Challenges and opportunities in the management of electronic waste and its impact on human health and environmentThis study explains e-waste pollution, including air, soil, and water contamination, and the health impact associated with it. Additionally, it explains sustainable methods in effective e-waste management like the 3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle), following circular economy.This study presents limited explanation on challenges faced by workers working in the informal sector, and also discusses how e-waste management can create opportunities for workers.
[46]Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans.This study explains how pollutants enter the environment. Moreover, it shows the physical, chemical, and biological impact from every heavy metal following the process of biomagnification and bioaccumulation within the food chain.This study lacks detailed mitigation strategies on overcoming the combined effects of heavy metal on the environment and human health to address the pollution.
[47]Management of E-waste in India: Challenges and recommendations.This study explains major concerns associated with e-waste in India, such as child labor, limited infrastructure, poor legislative measures, poor awareness and education, and informal recycling practices.This study gives limited practical solutions; it includes more of the qualitative recommendation from other articles.
[48]Discarded e-waste/printed circuit boards: a review of their recent methods of disassembly, sorting and environmental implications.This study highlights the increasing e-waste problems globally due to economic growth and rapid technological advancements. It also explores various recycling techniques, including mechanical, manual, chemical, and smart disassembly. The article also discusses circular economy models as future approaches for improving e-waste management. The study lacks a discussion of the socioeconomic impact of e-waste management, including child labor, exploitation impacting their health and well-being, and informal sector dependence. The study highlights policy deficiencies but lacks actionable recommendations for enforcement strategies.

4.1. Initiatives Undertaken Through Public–Private Partnership (PPP) for E-Waste Management in India

There are several initiatives taken by top companies and The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) to tackle the issue of e-waste, which are presented below in Table 2.

4.2. E-Waste Management: Policies and Guidelines in India

The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) was notified about the management of electronic waste guidelines that require producers and manufacturers to compensate for the charges for recycling of electronic waste [53,54].
The 2011 E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules shall recognize the manufacturers responsible for the recovery and processing of e-waste in the United States. It came into force on 1 May 2012. It emphasizes the introduction of extended producer responsibility (EPR) [44,54]. PC (personal computer) manufacturers, mobile phones, and home appliance manufacturers must establish drop-off locations or launch a “recycling take-back” programme. “These guidelines will be applicable to each producer, purchaser and large-scale consumer involved in the distribution, purchase, production and dealing with electronic products and equipment”. The ministry has granted producers a one-year window to set up their operation.
The 2016 e-waste rule was revised in 2018; it was comprehensive and featured measured provisions to promote “authorization” and “product stewardship” together with other entities such as producer responsibility organizations (PROs) incorporated into these guidelines. Here, product stewardship means that anyone involved in product design, manufacturing, sales, or who uses a product is responsible for its environmental impact throughout its entire lifecycle, which also includes its end-of-life management. This 2016 rule emphasizes securing authorization from stakeholders [54].
In November 2022, MoEF&CC issued a revised set of e-waste rules, The E-Waste (Management) Rules 2022, which came into force from 1 April 2023. A “digitalized systems approach” was introduced to address the challenges. In addition, EPR was introduced, and producers, importers, and brand owners (PIBO) must be responsible for collecting and recycling the electronic waste they share on the market [44,54,55]. The main objective was to promote a circular economy following EPR practices. In 2022, the EPR rule framework was highlighted to manage electronic waste. It targeted those involved in the sale, manufacture, purchase, transfer, dismantling, refurbishing, processing, or recycling of electronic waste and its components [55].
In January 2023, the E-Waste (Management) Rules 2022 were amended, and the E-Waste (Management) Amendment Rules 2023 were issued [56]. They were effective from 1 April 2023, in which extended producer responsibility was revised to enhance accountability; it became mandatory to be registered under the CPCB, and submission of detailed EPR plans and EPR certificate trading was introduced. A centralized digital platform was launched for registration, return filling, EPR compliance monitoring, etc. [56].
In July 2023, The MoEF&CC notified that The E-Waste (Management) Second Amendment Rules 2023 were amended. [57] This aimed to bring transparency and accountability and promote the practice of sustainability in the management of electronic waste. Here, the previous e-waste rules were updated based on a severity-graded penalty system; it became mandatory to submit eco-design reports annually, EPR practices were refined, and better recycling standards were introduced [57]. In the 2023 rules, it is mandatory for manufacturers, producers, renovators, and recyclers to register themselves on the CPCB-developed portal. Unregistered entities are prohibited from conducting business and are restricted from engaging with any unregistered entities [57].
The E-Waste (Management) Amendment Rules 2024 were introduced in March 2024. Under these rules, producers were encouraged to collect, recycle, and dispose of e-waste comprehensively. The rules also increased the number of collection centers, and producers were mandated to provide consumers information through an awareness programme regarding the impact of electronic waste, the importance of electronic waste recycling, and proper disposal methods [58].

5. Negative Impact of E-Waste on the Environment

The negative impacts of electronic waste on the environment are presented in Figure 7. Environmental repercussions related to the mismanagement of electronic waste, including the disposal into nonregulated zones or landfills, pollute the environment and pose critical risks to the whole ecosystem [59]. E-waste is not biodegradable, and when not disposed of properly in landfills, it releases toxic chemicals, substances, and gases, ultimately degrading air quality and compromising soil and water quality, which adversely affects public health [59]. Social exposure to this electronic waste is encountered by air, food items, and water in open areas where informal workshops are conducted from home.
Environmental contamination also occurs from acid dumping in rivers, a process used to extract gold from obsolete electronic devices, resulting in the leaching of toxic substances from landfills into soil surfaces and water [37,59]. Furthermore, during the dismantling of electronic waste, harmful gases like dioxins, furans, and particulate matter are released, which can quickly enter the food chain through aquatic and terrestrial life, such as fish and frogs.
Occupational exposure occurs when fumes are inhaled from burning circuit boards and wires. It mainly affects children and pregnant women who are employed as recyclers [3]. Young children are particularly vulnerable, as they consume the dust on the surface while playing with disassembled electronic gadgets. Juveniles and teenagers often engage in gathering, disassembling, and recycling activities, exposing themselves to the toxic substances of electronic waste and facing significant health risks.
A. 
Negative Impact on Air Quality:
The atmosphere becomes contaminated by informal disposal methods such as shredding, dismantling, or melting electronic material, which release airborne dust particles and release toxic chemicals, including dioxins and fumes, leading to atmospheric pollution [60]. This affects respiratory function and can potentially harm the lungs [61,62]. Metals discharged during manual processing include barium (Ba), arsenic (As), lithium (Li), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) [61]. Burning electronic waste releases fine particles that impact animals, birds, humans, and other organisms, especially those living in the vicinity. Humans are at higher risk because these fine particles are difficult to manage and can cause cancer, tumors, and other chronic diseases [63]. Precious metals, including gold, copper, and silver, were typically recovered by advanced incorporated electronics with the use of acids (for example, hydrochloric, nitric acid), desoldering tools, and various chemical agents that discharge fumes and dust during informal recycling [60,61]. These dust particles can travel thousands of miles, affecting those handling informal electronic waste recycling practices. Electronic incineration emits harmful chlorinated and brominated gases, including furan, dioxins, and greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen oxide (N2O), which are major contributors to greenhouse effects that lead to global warming and further accelerate the depletion of the ozone layer. Over time, air pollution also affects soil, water quality, and biodiversity, causing irreversible environmental damage [62]. Informal recycling practices can also release high concentrations of lead within the environment, which are absorbed through inhalation and ingestion. Lead causes damage to wildlife, plants, animals, and human inhabitants of the affected area [59,60].
B. 
Negative Impact on Soil Quality:
Soil is a habitat for many living organisms and it supports several activities, such as food production and maintaining the well-being of microorganisms due to substandard handling, disposal in landfills, and illegal dumping in abandoned areas. These activities generate a variety of abundant metallic toxins and flame-retardant agents, including brominated flame retardants (BFRs), that are present in plastics [64,65]. These agents contaminate the soil and leach through the soil particles, contaminating groundwater and plants planted near this area [61,63,65].
Crops planted in contaminated soil become vulnerable to the absorption of toxic metals such as arsenic and cadmium, which can cause disease and reduce the agricultural productivity of that land by changing the pH level and soil composition [65]. Burning, shedding, or decomposing e-waste releases larger dust particles. Due to their size and weight, they are redeposited in the ground. Along with that, trace metals such as copper, cadmium, zinc, and lead are usually deposited in the surface layer of the soil and further pollute it. The magnitude of soil pollution depends on various parameters, including pH levels, soil structure, soil type, and temperature [65]. Pollutants such as polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can be retained in the soil for prolonged periods, causing threats to microorganisms living inside the soil, such as earthworms, as well as affecting vegetation on the surface. Flora and fauna dependent on natural ecosystems for their food can consume contaminated plants having heavy metals such as lead and copper, leading to internal health problems [63,65]. Toxic substances enter the soil crop food pathway; for example, PBDEs can accumulate in vegetables, enter the food chain and, in this way, impact human health. Over time, these toxicants spread throughout the area, resulting in a decrease in soil fertility and microbial activity, and ultimately, farmland is degraded [64,65]. This leads to the loss of biodiversity, disturbed soil ecosystems, and it fosters unsustainable agricultural practices.
C. 
Negative Impact on Water Quality:
Water is the ecosystem of many aquatic microbes, plants, and animals. However, soil degradation occurs whereby hazardous toxic metals from electronic waste, including arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, and lithium, seep into the soil, polluting groundwater. For example, the decomposition of the cathode ray tube releases heavy metals such as lead and mercury into groundwater [62,63]. These toxic substances travel to other water bodies like rivers, reservoirs, ponds, wetlands, and lakes; This pathway creates acidic proliferation that leads to acidification and toxic accumulation. Acidification can kill organisms and microorganisms in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Toxicants travel miles from recycling sites through the soil and into water bodies, making the water unfit for drinking and other uses, creating a challenge to find clean water [62,63,66]. Due to acidification and contamination, freshwater and marine organisms such as fish and phytoplankton die, which disrupts the biodiversity of that affected area and damages the water ecosystem. The toxification of water can harm aquatic ecosystems to such an extent that recovery becomes uncertain and perhaps unattainable.
Through the process of bioleaching, toxicants can enter water bodies where metal slowly leaches out from informally-disposed-of e-waste and pollutes nearby areas [64]. Organisms living in this area consume toxic heavy metals and store them in their bodies in trace amounts for a long time [64]. These heavy metals (Hg, Pb, As, Cd, etc.) are transferred to the next level in the food chain. For example, when small organisms such as fish consume heavy metals such as mercury, these toxicants pass through the food chain, increasing the concentration through biomagnification and accumulating in the body through bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation is a process in which heavy metals, pollutants, or pesticides gradually build up within a single organism over time, persisting for a lifetime because the body cannot excrete or break them down. For example, a fish in polluted water absorbs mercury; it accumulates in its tissues, cannot be easily excreted, and continues to accumulate overtime, making it harmful for large predators or humans who consume it. This disturbs the whole ecosystem and causes serious health problems in humans, including neurological damage, especially in children, kidney damage, stomach problems, etc. Many of these toxic heavy metals, including arsenic, lithium, and mercury, act as carcinogens [66].
D. 
Negative Impact on the Ecosystem:
Some plant and animal species such as Alium Cepa (onion), Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (microalgae), Zea mays (maize), and Oryza sativa (rice) are strongly impacted by heavy metals present in e-waste [37]. Heavy metals such as zinc, chromium, and nickel can cause a somatic mutation in which the sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid changes. Other adverse effects include a reduced growth rate, plant nutrient content, shorter stems and a roots, and decreased amount of chlorophyll. This results in a decline of biodiversity and the endangering of species that live in that area where contaminants are present in large amounts [46].
Human actions, including the use of metal-based pesticides, discharge heavy metals from mining zones, contributing to metals such as mercury, arsenic, and chromium in the soil ecosystem. These toxic heavy metals are then discharged into water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, through soil erosion and seepage of the soil [46,66].

6. Negative Impact of E-Waste on Human Health and Well-Being

Prolonged exposure to hazardous chemicals released through electronic waste can cause multiple injuries in the human body, including the endocrine system, neurological system, reproductive anatomy, bones, and kidneys [67]. Improper handling, disposing, and management of e-waste in sanitary landfill sites and incineration units degrades air quality, groundwater, surface water, and soil quality [46,67,68]. Exposure to electronic waste is a multifaceted process that involves multiple pathways and points of contact, with different contact durations, suppressive possibilities, and combined impacts of several pollutants [69]. Some common exposure points include structure recycling, ad hoc recycling, and contact with harmful electronic waste substances in the environment [41,68,69]. Children and pregnant women are vulnerable to hazardous substances generated by informal recycling processes [41,68,69,70,71]. Children are actively involved in collecting, manually dismantling, and burning discarded electronic waste. Toxic metals such as mercury and lead are released from these practices and can cross the placenta; contaminants from breast milk disrupt neuron development in the CNS (central nervous system) during fetal, neonatal, childhood, and adolescence [72,73]. Exposure to electronic waste adversely affects their immune system, lung function, causes accelerated or stunted growth, and affects neurodevelopment, behavior, and cognitive development. It can also lead to detrimental birth outcomes, including preterm birth, stillbirth, shortened gestation period, underweight, and short duration of the birth. Workers’ exposure to electronic waste has caused health problems, such as shortness of breath, weakness, chest pain, stress, headaches, effects on liver function, reduced sperm quality, and DNA damage [3,72]. E-waste is a combination of toxic material and heavy metals, which can result in irreversible effects on human health. The health hazards related to elements are specified in Table 3.

7. Solution and Recommendation

Electronic waste management (e-waste) is a challenging matter in India due to the immense quantity of e-waste produced daily. However, various solutions and recommendations can be implemented. Figure 8 illustrates the key aspects of the management of electronic waste. The initial step involved in managing electronic waste is reducing the amount of electronic waste produced by upcycling, repairing, and upgrading existing appliances [47]. The next step consists of setting up a formal electronic waste collection system, which is managed by manufacturers, organizations, and government agencies [45,48,78]. An appropriate disposal method can facilitate the recovery and reuse of valuable materials such as gold and silver. After collection, electronic waste should be responsible and managed in a sound manner, following necessary safety and precautionary measures. Recycling ensures the safe handling of toxic heavy metals and prevents contamination of the environment [78]. The safe disposal of batteries, discs, and mobile phones is essential to prevent toxic heavy metals from being released into the environment. Methods such as incineration and sanitary land filling should be avoided, as they mainly emit toxic pollutants such as CO2 and NOx to the environment. Instead, the establishment and enforcement of rules and regulations are essential in the management of electronic waste, as they ensure proper handling, management, and disposal mechanisms [79]. The government has a significant impact on the regulation of rules by maintaining and enforcing these standards [80]. Organizations should adopt methods like safe transportation to organizations where there are specialized facilities for the disposal of electronic waste in safer and secure locations [48,80,81]. Also, a collaborative approach can be followed by both informal and formal sectors where the unorganized sector handles the collection, dismantling, and sorting, while the organized sector handles the extraction of metal, disposal, and recycling in a formal setup. The government plays a significant part in regulating rules by maintaining and enforcing these standards [82]. Along with that, there is an urgent need to spread awareness and educate local communities, producers, consumers, stakeholders, and policymakers about the negative impacts of electronic waste on environmental conditions and individual health. The 3Rs (reducing, reusing, and recycling) should be prioritized, following circular economy practices through collaboration between governments, NGOs, and businesses to create effective policies, infrastructure, and innovation, which could minimize waste, extend product lifecycle, and maximize resource efficiency.
Table 4 provides a step-by-step outline of the essential steps crucial for effective e-waste management in India.
These aspects are essential for ensuring a safer, healthier, eco-friendly, and more sustainable future, which also ensures accountability and a sustainable way of managing e-waste.

8. Conclusions

India is a major contributor worldwide to the generation of electronic waste. The rate at which the volume of electronic waste is produced is much more than its rate of collection, disposal, recovery, and recycling. E-waste is recycled informally and unauthorizedly by unskilled poor laborers from marginalized societies. This leads to pollution and poses serious threats to our ecosystem, air, soil, and water. The toxic heavy metals, including barium, lead, mercury, and arsenic, released from electric appliances have severe impacts on human health, including lung and liver damage, allergic reactions, reduced male fertility, and miscarriage.
This study summarizes the description of the source, components, and nature of the generated electronic waste, the significant problems that accompany it, and the current state of the management of electronic waste in India, followed by legislative measures taken by the government. It also highlights the detrimental effects on the well-being of humans and the environment. This article recommends multiple approaches, including regulatory enforcement, public education, the use of sustainable technologies, and the promotion of formal recycling practices, to mitigate the adverse impact of electronic waste on the health and well-being of humans and their environment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.K.S., R.J. and K.S.; methodology, S.K.S., R.J. and K.S.; formal analysis, S.K.S., R.J. and K.S.; investigation, S.K.S., R.J. and K.S.; writing original draft preparation, S.K.S., R.J. and K.S.; visualization, S.K.S. and R.J.; writing—review and editing, S.K.S., R.J. and K.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by AGH UST within the framework of the “Excellence Initiative—Research University” program. This research was partially supported by Research Subsidy AGH 16.16.210.476. The contribution of K.S. was supported by project funding from the European Union HORIZON TMA MSCA Staff Exchanges (HORIZON-MSCA-2021-SE-01), grant agreement no 101086071, project name “CUPOLA—Carbon-neutral pathways of recycling marine plastic waste”. Support was also provided by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland through the program “PMW grant no. 5863/HE/2024/2 (no. W52/HE/2024)”.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Various sources of electronic waste (e-waste).
Figure 1. Various sources of electronic waste (e-waste).
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Figure 2. Types of heavy metals in e-waste.
Figure 2. Types of heavy metals in e-waste.
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Figure 3. E-waste growth trend in India (based on data https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1943201 (accessed on 5 January 2025).
Figure 3. E-waste growth trend in India (based on data https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1943201 (accessed on 5 January 2025).
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Figure 4. Growing trend of e-waste worldwide (based on data https://www.statista.com/statistics/499891/projection-ewaste-generation-worldwide/ (accessed on 5 January 2025)).
Figure 4. Growing trend of e-waste worldwide (based on data https://www.statista.com/statistics/499891/projection-ewaste-generation-worldwide/ (accessed on 5 January 2025)).
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Figure 5. Top leading counties based on e-waste generation in 2022 (based on data https://www.statista.com/statistics/499952/ewaste-generation-worldwide-by-major-country/ (accessed on 5 January 2025)).
Figure 5. Top leading counties based on e-waste generation in 2022 (based on data https://www.statista.com/statistics/499952/ewaste-generation-worldwide-by-major-country/ (accessed on 5 January 2025)).
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Figure 6. Major challenges related to e-waste management in India.
Figure 6. Major challenges related to e-waste management in India.
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Figure 7. Impact of e-waste on the environment.
Figure 7. Impact of e-waste on the environment.
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Figure 8. An illustration outlining the key aspects in managing e-waste.
Figure 8. An illustration outlining the key aspects in managing e-waste.
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Table 2. Several efforts addressing electronic waste (e-waste) management in India.
Table 2. Several efforts addressing electronic waste (e-waste) management in India.
S. No.CompaniesDescription
1E-Parisaraa pvt ltd. It is the first recognized formal sustainable waste processing unit, authorized by the government. It is eco-friendly and aims to reduce landfill waste, pollution and recycle glass, metal, plastics, etc. It safeguards sensitive data from obsolete laptops, computers and guarantees privacy of customers [44,49]. No melting occurs during segregation.
2Earth Sense Recycle Private ltd It constitutes a collaborative partnership between M/s. GJ Multiclade India private limited and E-Parisaraa private limited. It is India’s first biomedical waste management and handling company [49].
3Plug-in to e-cycling This represents an alliance between the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) along with companies such as consumer tech manufacturers, merchants, and service vendors, and provides greater possibilities for recycling and donation. This involves “e-Cycle” recovery and recycling of electronic material, and sound management of heavy toxic metal (lead, mercury, cadmium, etc.) [49,50].
4Manufacturers Association for Information Technology (MAIT) Eco-friendly disposal, processing, and handling of waste generated from electrical equipment by the ERA (Electronics Recycling Association) [51].
5Trishyiraya Recycling India private limited (TRIPL) This company has been approved by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the Government of India (GOI) [44,52]. It helps with the safe disposal of e-waste by using innovative technology and also helps in the recycling of waste. It has constant surveillance, such as CCTV (closed-circuit television camera).
Table 3. Health hazards associated with elements present in e-waste.
Table 3. Health hazards associated with elements present in e-waste.
Heavy MetalSources of Heavy MetalHealth Effects
Antimony (Sb) metalPlastics, flame-retardant chemicals.
  • Pulmonary lungs inflammation.
  • Chronic bronchial inflammation.
  • Chronic pulmonary emphysema.
Arsenic (As) metalPV cells, integrated circuit, gallium arsenide within LED (light emitting diodes) devices and semiconductors.
  • Dermatological problems.
  • Pulmonary cancer.
  • Damaged digestive system.
Barium (Ba) metalElectron beam generator in cathode ray tubes (CRT), vacuum tubes, and fluorescent lamps.
  • Paralysis and death.
  • Brain swelling.
  • Muscle weakness.
Beryllium (Be) metalCircuit boards, motherboards, connectors, power supply units, and X-ray optics
  • It can cause berylliosis.
  • It is carcinogenic (lung cancer).
  • It can also affect other organs like skin, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, kidneys, and heart.
Cadmium (Cd) metalChip resistors, switches, solder joints, infrared detectors, toner ink, photocopy machines, mobile phone, rechargeable batteries, nickel cadmium (NiCd), and fluorescent coating with randomized controlled trial screens.
  • It accumulates in the kidney and weakens the filtration system.
  • Weakens immune and central nervous system (CNS).
  • Fever, headache, sweating, and muscle pain [74].
  • Lowers cognitive skills in children.
  • Additional health issues include intense vomiting, stomachache, and diarrhea.
Chromium (Cr) metalGalvanized steel plates and decorators, steel housing of CPU, floppy discs, dyes, pigments, chrome plating, metal ceramics, and data cassettes.
  • Irritation to eyes, mucus membrane.
  • Skin rashes, stomach upset, ulcers.
  • Causes chronic brain damage.
  • Causes respiratory problems like bronchitis.
  • Alterations of genetic material.
Copper (Cu) metalCopper wires, DVDs, television, cables, wires, printed circuit board tracks.
  • It triggers stomach discomfort and nausea.
  • It induces liver damage and Wilson’s condition.
Lead (Pb) metalSolder in printed circuit boards, gaskets in computer monitors, acid batteries, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) cables wires, cathode ray tube monitors, and electrical batteries.
  • It accumulates in water bodies and soil, leading to poisoning.
  • In the human body it enters through air, water, and food, and can lead to affects like the following:
  • Anemia and disruption of biosynthesis of hemoglobin.
  • It can impair the circulatory system, the CNS (central nervous system), and the PNS (peripheral nervous system) [75,76].
  • Miscarriage, decline in male fertility.
  • It can cause chronic asthma.
Lithium (Li) metalLithium-ion batteries, smartphones, and video equipment.
  • This can transfer through the breast milk of a mother and hurt a nursing baby.
Mercury (Hg) metalRelays computing housing, switches, printed circuit boards, batteries, flat screen TV sets, LCDs, and clinical thermometers.When mercury is not disposed properly released in air, ground, and water. Mercury does not decompose and stays in the environment for several years [77].
  • It affects concentration, communication, cognition, memory, fine motor coordination and spatial intelligence.
  • Bioaccumulation induces disruption in the liver and brain tissue.
Nickel (Ni) metalElectron guns in CRT, nickel cadmium rechargeable batteries, and NiMH (nickel–metal hydride) batteries.
  • Causing allergic rash related with skin hypersensitivity.
  • It can cause pulmonary allergy and asthmatic conditions.
  • Behavioral disorders and cancer.
Selenium (Se) metalSolar panels, glass, PCBs, and Xerox machines.
  • It causes selenosis and symptoms are thinning hair and brittle nails.
Silver (Ag) metalCapacitors, microchips, and plated components.
  • It causes kidney disease, stomach discomfort, and neurological damage.
Plastics and PVCCable insulation and computer bodies.
  • During combustion it emits dioxins, which cause developmental and reproduction issue
  • Birth defect, cancer, diabetics.
Brominated fire-retardant chemicalsCables, wires, and coating of PCBs.
  • It alters function of endocrine system and disrupt hormonal balance.
Table 4. Essential steps for effective e-waste management in India.
Table 4. Essential steps for effective e-waste management in India.
S. NoKey DimensionsDescription
1Collection and Transportation Setting up of strategic collecting sites in a large area and forming partnerships with the logistics companies that will ensure the transportation of e-waste securely to the strategic locations [83].
2Sorting and SeparationThe hazardous e-waste and non-hazardous e-waste are separated in the collecting sites, so the waste can be recycled and managed in a safe way [48,84].
3Innovation and TechnologyThe advanced innovative technologies promote the development of durable and repairable electronic assets, which can prioritize circular economy practices such as the reprocessing and reuse of e-waste [85,86,87].
4Recycling and Disposal The establishment of efficient recycling centers in large areas and in partnership with specific companies should be followed for the responsible management of waste generated from electronics [88,89].
5Legal Policies and RegulationsImplementing norms and guidelines for managing e-waste involves regulatory framework, punishments and penalties to be paid for non-compliance, and rewards for promoting environmentally friendly practices [90].
6Public Awareness and EducationEducating the public about managing e-waste in a sustainable manner, its impact on the environment and health, and ways to adopt sustainable practices.
7Corporate ResponsibilityCompanies should promote eco-friendly or green policies, recycling practices to be supported, and reduce the generation of e-waste.
8Ecological and Social Effects Ecological and health risks related to e-wastes need to be addressed, promoting safe disposal methods, supporting and helping affected communities [20].
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Sandwal, S.K.; Jakhar, R.; Styszko, K. E-Waste Challenges in India: Environmental and Human Health Impacts. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 4350. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084350

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Sandwal SK, Jakhar R, Styszko K. E-Waste Challenges in India: Environmental and Human Health Impacts. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(8):4350. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084350

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Sandwal, Sarita Kumari, Rakshit Jakhar, and Katarzyna Styszko. 2025. "E-Waste Challenges in India: Environmental and Human Health Impacts" Applied Sciences 15, no. 8: 4350. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084350

APA Style

Sandwal, S. K., Jakhar, R., & Styszko, K. (2025). E-Waste Challenges in India: Environmental and Human Health Impacts. Applied Sciences, 15(8), 4350. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084350

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