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Article

Utilisation of Mining Waste for Production of Ceramic Tiles

by
Piotr Izak
1,
Jurij Delihowski
1,*,
Joanna Mastalska-Popławska
1 and
Agata Stempkowska
2
1
Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Kraków, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
2
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, AGH University of Kraków, Mickiewicza 30 Av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3957; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073957
Submission received: 21 February 2025 / Revised: 27 March 2025 / Accepted: 31 March 2025 / Published: 3 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Applied Industrial Technologies)
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Abstract

:
This study proposes the utilisation of mining wastes, TG3 clay (Turoszów mining gangue) and post-flotation sludge (KGHM-Gilów), stored at a distance of about 150 km from each other in the region of Lower Silesia, Poland. From these wastes, mixtures were prepared for the production of ceramic tiles. Depending on the mutual proportions of the wastes, it is possible to obtain sintered stoneware-type ceramics with a mechanical bending strength of about 40 MPa and porous faience-type ceramics with a strength above 15 MPa. It is shown that the significant utilisation of these wastes is possible. The ceramic tiles were classified according to the applicable PN-EN 14411:2016 standard.

1. Introduction

Mining waste management represents one of the most significant environmental challenges in the mineral extraction industry, particularly in regions with intensive mining operations. The issue is especially pressing in areas with multiple mining activities, where different types of waste accumulate over time. In Poland, copper mining and processing alone generate approximately 28 million tons of post-flotation waste annually, while lignite mining produces substantial amounts of clay waste, creating a complex waste management challenge in the region of Lower Silesia [1,2,3,4]. These wastes are currently stored at the only active facility—the Mining Waste Disposal Facility (MWDF) “Żelazny Most”. It is one of the world’s largest hydrotechnical structures of this type [5].
It shapes groundwater and surface water’s hydrochemical and hydrodynamic conditions over several square kilometres of surrounding areas. Limited storage capacity and increasing evidence of the adverse impact of post-flotation waste on the environment [6,7,8,9] have created an urgent need to perform research dedicated to their potential utilisation. Post-flotation waste, subjected to long-term exposure to atmospheric factors, undergoes dissolution, which consequently leads to a rise in the concentration of potentially toxic compounds in the immediate surroundings. Less than 5 km southwest of “Żelazny Most” is the MWDF “Gilów”—a smaller storage facility that has already been decommissioned (1968-1980, mainly from the “Lubin” mine). It has also been the subject of many research studies and reports, including the mineralogical and chemical composition, as well as a description of pollutants released into the environment [10,11,12,13]. The granulometric composition and selected physical properties of post-flotation sediments accumulated in the “Gilów” facility vary widely [11]. This depends on the type of rock in which the original copper ore occurs (different mines) and its mechanical processing technology. In the <2 μm fraction of post-flotation sediments, there are clay minerals from the group of hydrated mica (illite), smectite and mixed-packet illite–smectite minerals. Fine-grained carbonate waste (mainly dolomite and calcite) is currently used to seal the bottom of the disposal site, preventing the infiltration of mineralised supernatant water into its substrate [14,15]. Waste with a majority share of sandstone is generally not reused. So far, several directions of their potential application have been studied, e.g., for the production of cement [16], porous aggregates, cellular concrete and foam concrete, magnesium–calcium fertilisers, road construction and mining technologies [17,18], as well as in ceramic tile production [19,20]. For various reasons, none of the directions identified so far has created the possibility of profitable and comprehensive usage of significant amounts of flotation waste. Currently, the primary techniques for the management of sediment waste from inactive disposals in Poland are reclamation and afforestation. It is, in fact, a loss of a potentially valuable source of raw material, e.g., for the ceramic industry. Additionally, unexploited landfills have a negative environmental impact, including the occupation of large natural areas (over 274 ha of surface), and, in their current form, do not fulfil any utilitarian nor natural function and is essentially a wasteland disfiguring the landscape [21,22]. However, these approaches to waste management have faced limitations in terms of economic viability, technical feasibility or scale of waste utilisation [23]. The ceramic industry, particularly tile production, presents a promising alternative that has not been fully explored, especially for the simultaneous utilisation of multiple waste streams. For instance, while the presence of potentially toxic elements in reclaimed coal waste poses a risk, it also indicates that careful processing could yield valuable raw materials for ceramics [24]. Coal waste shows a presence of potentially toxic elements, including heavy metals such as arsenic, lead and manganese, which can pose environmental and health risks if not properly managed [25,26]. However, these elements also indicate that through appropriate treatment methods, coal waste can be transformed into valuable raw materials. Techniques such as gravimetric separation, flotation and chemical stabilisation have been investigated to reduce the concentration of hazardous elements and improve the suitability of coal-derived materials; furthermore, the physical properties of the waste, such as particle size and moisture content, can affect the quality of the final ceramic products, requiring additional processing steps to ensure consistency [27,28,29].
The distribution of waste dumps across Poland means that transportation costs can be significant, particularly for remote sites like “Żelazny Most” [30]. Annual report presented by KGHM declared that “Żelazny most”, in 2022, received 28.7 million tonnes of waste and deposits over 667.7 mln Mg of waste, occupying over 495 ha of territory on its own [31,32]. The coal mining waste dumps occupy over 4000 ha in more than 220 dumping sites, where over 760 million Mg of waste from hard coal mining have been disposed [33].
Moreover, the infrastructure for processing and integrating these waste materials into existing ceramic production lines is often lacking. This results in a situation where only a small fraction of the available waste is utilised, despite the potential for larger-scale applications. In the region of Lower Silesia, two significant waste streams are of particular interest for ceramic applications. The first is post-flotation waste from copper processing, produced through the froth flotation of sedimentary copper deposits from Kupferschiefer formations [34]. The second is clay waste (TG3) from the lignite mine complex “Turów” [35,36], especially grey clays above the II lignite seam. The proximity of these materials (within 150 km of each other) and their complementary properties (discussed in Section 2) suggest potential for combined utilisation in ceramic production.
The present study investigates the feasibility of producing ceramic tiles by using these two mining waste streams, with the specific objectives being the following:
  • Evaluate the potential for the simultaneous utilisation of post-flotation sludge and mining clay waste in ceramic tile production.
  • Determine the optimal waste ratios and processing conditions to meet the PN-EN 14411:2016 standard [37].
  • Assess the technical and environmental benefits of this waste utilisation approach.
  • Establish a foundation for sustainable waste management practices that could be applied even if lignite mining decreases due to CO2 emission policies [38].
The innovation of this work lies in demonstrating that by properly adjusting the relative proportions of TG3 clay from Turoszów mining gangue and post-flotation sludge from the KGHM-Gilów facilities, it is possible to obtain both sintered stoneware-type ceramics and porous faience-type ceramics that meet industrial standards. The characteristics of TG3 clay and post-flotation waste complement each other through their contrasting compositions: TG3 clay provides high alumina content and kaolinite (contributing essential plasticity and strength), while post-flotation waste supplies calcium and magnesium oxides acting as fluxes. The fine particle distribution has the potential to result in proper particle packing and sintering behaviour, creating a composite material with adjustable properties depending on the mixing ratio.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Characterisation of Raw Materials

2.1.1. Characteristics of Post-Flotation Waste

Post-flotation waste from copper processing exhibits specific physicochemical properties that make it potentially suitable for ceramic applications. The analysis of the particle size distribution (Table 1) reveals that approximately 90% of the material consists of particles smaller than 0.06 mm, with only minimal amounts of coarser fractions (2.0% > 0.2 mm, 4.6% between 0.2 and 0.1 mm and 2.3% between 0.1 and 0.06 mm). This fine particle size distribution is particularly advantageous for ceramic production, as it eliminates the need for additional grinding operations, potentially reducing processing costs and energy consumption.
The chemical analysis of post-flotation waste (Table 2) indicates a composition dominated by silica (60.0–63.0% SiO2), with significant amounts of calcium oxide (14.4–17.2% CaO) and magnesium oxide (5.1–6.9% MgO). The relatively low alumina content (3.9–4.9% Al2O3) suggests limited clay mineral content, which requires its combination with more plastic materials for ceramic applications. The presence of alkaline oxides (K2O: 1.1–1.5%; Na2O: 0.29–0.31%) can contribute to the formation of liquid phase during sintering, potentially benefiting the densification process. The low iron oxide content (0.55–0.65% Fe2O3) indicates a minimal influence on the final colour of the ceramic products.

2.1.2. TG3 Clay Characteristics

As shown in Figure 1, grey clay occurs in well-defined layers within the “B” complex of the mine, facilitating selective extraction and minimising mining costs.
The comparative analysis of physicochemical properties between refractory clays (“clean”) and stoneware clays (“grey”) (Table 3) reveals several important characteristics of the TG3 material. The Al2O3 content (19.1–20.3%) in grey clay is suitable for ceramic applications, providing the necessary plasticity and development of strength during firing, while its lower carbonate content (1%) helps control gas evolution during firing. The moderate iron content (1.1–1.3% Fe2O3) can affect the final colour, but remains within acceptable limits for many ceramic applications. The particle size distributions create optimal particle packing that benefits the forming and sintering processes, potentially improving the mechanical properties in the final ceramic body.

2.2. Compositions of Sets Intended for Testing

The average chemical compositions of the mentioned waste raw materials, calculated as oxides, are presented in Table 4. The underlined values are used to calculate rational compositions. Rational composition analysis is a way of expressing the mineral composition of ceramic masses reduced to three basic components, that is, clay substance (kaolinite), feldspar (orthoclase and albite) and quartz. The three mentioned components are calculated from the chemical (oxide) analysis of the raw materials in the mass recipe. If the amount of CaO and MgO oxides exceeds 0.5%, they are calculated as the content (calcite and magnesite). The carbonate group forms an independent fourth element of the rational composition of ceramic masses. Rational analysis allows for a comparison of mass compositions, the recalculation of compositions when using different raw materials, etc. Ceramic masses that have a similar rational composition are characterised by similar technological and physicochemical properties after firing. Table 5 presents changes in the rational compositions of the ceramic masses according to the mutual shares of individual raw materials. The replacement of Bechatów clay with post-flotation sludge causes a change in rational compositions towards an increase in the share of quartz and a decrease in clay minerals. The change in the amount of feldspar (fluxes) is relatively small and does not exceed 4%.
Since the analysed waste raw materials contain significant amounts of calcium and magnesium oxides (especially sludge), the rational composition must include a fourth mineral group, that is, carbonate. Figure 2 shows this schematically. Depending on the mutual shares of the tested wastes, the share of carbonates successively increases (square markers).
The individual sets are located in three fields of ceramic materials, i.e., porous ceramics, sintered ceramics and sintered ceramics sensitive to deformation. This means that it is possible to produce wall tiles of the faience type and, to a small extent, stoneware tiles. Data from the literature show that carbonates present in the mass limit the production of sintered ceramics due to the increase in their water absorption and the narrowing of the sintering interval [21].

2.3. Research Methodology

The research methodology was based on the basic requirements of the PN-EN 14411:2016 standard concerning the classification of ceramic tiles. The focus was on three basic utility parameters of ceramics, i.e., linear shrinkage, water absorption and porosity, and mechanical bending strength. After drying the raw materials, individual sets were homogenised in a ball mill for 10 min.
Mechanical bending strength was evaluated by using rectangular beam specimens with dimensions of 80 × 9 × 10 mm. The specimens were prepared by uniaxial dry pressing at 400 MPa and fired at selected temperatures by using either an SP 30/13 KENT gradient resistance furnace or a Nabertherm chamber furnace. For each experimental condition, eight specimens were tested to ensure statistical reliability. The three-point bending tests were conducted on a Zwick Roell Z150 universal testing machine (ZwickRoell, Ulm, Germany) with a support span of 50 mm and a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min, in accordance with the ISO 10545-4:2019 standard [39]. The bending strength was calculated from the maximum load at fracture by using the beam flexure formula.
Water absorption was determined as the ratio of the mass of water absorbed by the sample’s open pores to the mass of the sample in the dry state. The test consists in determining the percentage ratio of the masses of the sample in the dry state and after boiling it for 2 h in distilled water.
The open porosity, expressed as a percentage, determines the ratio of the volume of open pores filled with water during the test to the volume of the sample according to the following formula (ISO 10545-4):
P o = m n − m s m n − m w ⋅ 100 ⋅ ( % )
where the following apply:
Po—open porosity (%).
ms—mass of dry sample (g).
mn—mass of the water-saturated sample (after boiling) (g).
mw—mass of the water-saturated sample weighed in water (g).
Chemical analysis was performed by the WD-XRF spectrometer S8 TIGER by Bruker. The measurements were performed by using the vacuum method with the built-in Quant Express reference standard.
The average particle size distribution of the raw powders was determined by laser diffraction analysis by using a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 instrument (Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK). For each measurement, 5 g of powder was dispersed in 100 mL of distilled water. To ensure proper dispersion and prevent agglomeration, the suspension was subjected to ultrasonic treatment for 5 min prior to analysis.

3. Results

Studies have shown that the increase in the content of sludge causes a successive decrease in the shrinkage of the tile ceramic masses and is typical for the swelling of this material, especially at lower firing temperatures. The linear change is significant in terms of determining tile sizes. Figure 3 shows the results of the total shrinkage measurements of beams fired in a gradient furnace. At sludge content greater than 50% by weight, the linear swelling of the samples is intense and reaches about 3%. The mass sinters at higher firing temperatures, that is, above 1050 °C, partially eliminating the swelling phenomenon. Therefore, in these sets of samples, in the temperature range of 1100–1150 °C, the phenomenon finally weakens, or there is no change in the linear dimensions of the samples at all. It can be noticed that the kinetics of swelling and shrinkage associated with the sintering effect differ for the tested samples; hence, there are extremes of changes in linear dimensions in the tested temperature range. In particular, this can be seen in sets containing sludge in an amount of 70 to 90 %wt, in which, at a temperature of about 1130 °C, a porous alloy (expanded clay LECA) is already formed, while for samples with 50 %wt sludge content (as in set P5), the sample dimensions change to a small extent. This proves that the phenomena related to the sintering and decomposition of carbonates are comparable.
At this temperature, with sludge contents below 50 %wt (P2 ÷ P5), as the temperature increases, there is a successive reduction in the linear dimensions of the samples as a result of the sintering process. On the other hand, at sludge contents greater than 50% (P6 to P10), there is a successive increase in linear swelling associated with the decomposition of carbonates. The temperature at the beginning of sintering decreases with the increase in the amount of sludge, as shown by the black dashed line (Figure 3).
The change in water absorption and total porosity is directly related to the change in sample shrinkage (Figure 4 and Figure 5).
The “Gilów” post-flotation sludge introduced into the sets results in a noticeable increase in the water absorption of ceramics depending on its share, especially at low firing temperatures, that is, up to 1100 °C. The water absorption results (Figure 4) demonstrate distinct sintering behaviour patterns depending on sludge content.
In sets containing more than 80 %wt of sludge, as the firing temperature increases above 1050 °C, there is a rapid increase in water absorption associated with the so-called melt gassing and the opening of closed pores. The open porosity results of compositions after firing as a function of temperature are presented at Figure 5 and will be discussed later.
The increase in water absorption at higher temperatures can be attributed to several factors. First, both materials contain compounds that decompose at elevated temperatures, releasing gases during firing. The LOI (loss on ignition) values of both materials (10.5% in sludge and 13.8% in TG3 clay; Table 4) suggest the presence of volatile components that would contribute to gas evolution during firing. It can be assumed that the gases released create internal pressure within the ceramic body [40,41,42]. At temperatures below 1050 °C, this gas release likely occurs while the ceramic matrix still has sufficient viscosity to maintain its structural integrity. However, as temperatures exceed 1050 °C, particularly in high-sludge-content compositions, the increased flux content may lead to significant reduction in melt viscosity. The combination of continued gas evolution and reduced matrix viscosity would result in bloating, pore coalescence and, ultimately, an increase in both open porosity and water absorption. Xu et al. [43] reported findings in anorthite-based ceramics from copper slag, where the appropriate liquid-phase formation results in the formation of dense structures with fine, rounded pores, while for high sludge content, >40%, high porosity was obtained due to bloating. Similarly, a further temperature increase results in a decrease of porosity due to the smoothening of surfaces as a result of melting, which results in a decrease in open porosity and water absorption.
As the firing temperatures increase to the range of 1100–1250 °C, there is a successive decrease in water absorption for all samples. The rate of this decrease is more pronounced in lower-sludge-content compositions, suggesting more efficient pore elimination compared with higher-sludge-content compositions. Such intense densification can be related to the optimal balance of clay minerals and feldspars that promote liquid-phase formation and pore elimination during sintering. For high-sludge-content compositions, a lower rate of water absorption drop may be attributed to a higher concentration of gasogenous contamination, which dumps densification mechanisms by promoting porosity. Thus, the pore sizes and interconnections are more pronounced, as can also be observed in the SEM images presented below.
The microstructural analysis reveals significant differences in pore morphology with varying sludge content. The SEM micrographs (Figure 6 and Figure 7) demonstrate evolution from predominantly isolated closed pores in samples with lower sludge content to interconnected open pores in samples with higher sludge content. It is worth noting that for water absorption, porosity and mechanical strength measurements tests, only samples that maintained sufficient structural integrity during firing were analysed, as compositions with high sludge content (>70%) underwent extreme deformation and structural degradation at elevated temperatures, rendering reliable quantitative analysis impractical for these compositions.
The observed microstructures demonstrate the evolution of porosity characteristics with the increase in sludge content, from predominantly isolated closed pores in samples with lower sludge content to interconnected open pores in samples with higher sludge content.
Such microstructural behaviour correlates with changes in rational composition (Table 5), especially due to the increase in carbonate content (1% to 14%) together with sludge content. For high-sludge-content compositions (>50 %wt), the increase in carbonate content and decrease in clay minerals (9 to 30%) strongly influence the sintering behaviour. It is reasonable to assume that these carbonates and relatively high LOI (10–13%) content would result in generating gases at elevated temperatures [44]. This gas evolution becomes more pronounced with the increase in sludge content, forming larger interconnected pores. In samples with lower sludge content (≤50 %wt), higher clay content (36–66%) promotes sintering, which leads to a reduction in open porosity.
However, a comprehensive understanding of thermally inducted processes, such as phase evolution and transformation mechanisms, would require detailed XRD analysis at different firing temperatures, complemented by DSC-TG studies with evolved gas analysis. Due to the complexity of complex transformations in these multi-component waste materials and the significant scope, such analysis is not discussed in this work. Aspects related to the crystalline phase development, transformation kinetics and gas evolution mechanisms of similar materials have been previously discussed in the literature on the subject [41,42].
Due to deformation during heat treatment, only those samples that guaranteed to obtain reliable average results with a standard deviation below 5% were selected for mechanical strength analysis, which will be discussed later. The mechanical tests results are presented in Figure 8. Measurements in the marked field are subject to an error of 10–15% due to deformation.
The measurements showed a successive increase in mechanical bending strength as the firing temperature increased. This is particularly true for sets containing smaller amounts of sludge, i.e., up to 50% by weight. In this case, the highest mechanical strengths in the range of 40–50 MPa were found to be obtained at temperatures of 1200–1250 °C.
The increased sludge contents, i.e., above 50 %wt, in the tested sets change this regularity. Mechanical strength as a function of temperature stabilises and even decreases, especially with a sludge content >90 %wt. In general, increasing the content of the sludge reduces the mechanical strength of the material to a maximum of about 10 MPa. In these cases, exceeding the firing temperature above 1100 °C causes the melting and severe deformation of the samples. The alloys resemble the properties of expanded clay with different melting temperatures depending on the content of Turoszów clay.

4. Discussion

Waste from the mining industry related to copper and electroenergetic production poses significant environmental threats. Therefore, this study examines the complete compositional spectrum of two geographically proximate mining wastes. This approach represents a more sustainable solution than conventional methodologies, as it enables the utilisation of multiple waste streams simultaneously without relying on virgin materials, which offers a sustainable solution and a decrease in the consumption of natural resources. Multiple works have been conducted in this area in recent decades [44,45,46,47,48].
The innovation of this work lies in demonstrating that by simply adjusting the relative proportions of TG3 clay from Turoszów mining gangue and post-flotation sludge from KGHM-Gilów, it is possible to produce both sintered stoneware-type ceramics and porous faience-type ceramics that meet industrial standards. The characteristics of TG3 clay and post-flotation waste complement each other through their contrasting compositions: TG3 clay provides high alumina content (19.1–20.3% Al2O3) and kaolinite (67–69%) contributing essential plasticity and strength, while post-flotation waste supplies calcium and magnesium oxides (14.4–17.2% CaO, 5.1–6.9% MgO) acting as fluxes. The fine particle distribution allows one to achieve proper particle packing and sintering behaviour, creating a composite material with adjustable properties depending on the mixing ratio.
The location of the rational compositions of the tested sets in the rational composition triangle (Figure 2) lies on the line defining the content of 15–20% of flux and the significantly changeable content of clay minerals in relation to quartz and carbonates. This gives the possibility to design the composition of the mass for both sintered ceramics and quartz–dolomite faience-type ceramics. Since the applied post-production waste had a comparable average amount of feldspars (sodium–potassium), the possible ceramic production technology can be characterised as highly stable. The analysis of the obtained results indicates that further research should be conducted in two directions: masses containing up to 50 %wt of sludge for the production of sintered (stoneware) cladding tiles and masses containing more than 50 %wt of sludge for the production of porous faience-type tiles.
In the first case, special ceramics with a mechanical strength of about 45 MPa (min. 32 MPa or min. 35 MPa—ISO 10545-4) (Figure 9) and water absorption below 0.5 %wt or 3 < E ≤ 6%, fired in the temperature range of 1150–1250 °C, are obtained. This is comparable to commercial porcelain stoneware (35–50 MPa) [43,49]. However, higher values were reported by Xu et al. [43], who stated 87.6 MPa for anorthite-based ceramics with 40 %wt copper slag, and by Marghussian et al. [50], who achieved 57 MPa with 40 %wt copper slag tiles, confirming the potential of such materials. Other researchers reported bending strengths of tiles in the range 15–25 MPa [51,52], making our faience-type compositions with higher sludge content suitable replacements for non-load-bearing applications.
The shrinkage of these sets strongly depends on the sludge content. This research study shows that the greater the amount of sludge in the ceramic mass, the lower the shrinkage of the material and thus the lower the deformation tendency. The optimal sludge content is around 40 %wt. In other words, the sludge content in the ceramic mass will allow the tiles’ dimensions to be regulated after firing.
In the second case, higher sludge content in the mass, i.e., 50% and more, disrupts this regularity. The reason for this behaviour is the presence of a large amount of dolomite. Dolomite in ceramic masses is a flux agent in the range of higher temperatures (porcelain masses). Dolomite in sintered-type tile masses, therefore, reduces the sintering interval and lowers the sintering temperature, which can be described as a negative influence. At lower firing temperatures, however, dolomite has a beneficial effect on reducing the tendency of the material to deform by lowering shrinkage and increasing the mechanical strength of masses fired at lower temperatures. A clear increase in mechanical bending strength was obtained already with a 10 %wt addition of sludge. In general, compositions of TG3 clay and post-flotation sludge in the amount of 10–40 %wt allow one to obtain a sintered-type material for the production of frost-resistant ceramic tiles of group B Ia GL and UGL and non-frost-resistant group B IIa GL (PN-EN 14411:2016 according to Annex G and J).
In this second case, a faience-type tile material is obtained. Studies have shown that an increased amount of sludge (above 50 %wt) in the sets significantly reduces the mechanical bending strength, but in a wide range of this additive (<80%), faience tiles with the required level of bending strength, i.e., above 15 MPa (Figure 10), can be obtained (ISO 10545-4). From such a composition of waste raw materials, a mass for the production of ceramic wall tiles of group B III GL meeting the requirements of PN-EN 14411:2016 (according to Annex L) can be obtained.
Worth noticing is the non-monotonic trend in mechanical strength observed between 50 and 60% sludge content (Figure 9). In this specific compositional range, the opposing mechanisms of densification and porosity development may reach a temporary equilibrium, which appears to create a microstructure that briefly resists the general trend of decreasing strength with the increase in sludge content. Beyond 60% sludge content, structural integrity deteriorates rapidly as extensive thermal deformation and excessive porosity development overwhelm any strengthening mechanisms.
The total porosity of faience-type ceramics is about 100% higher than the water absorption. This fact can be used for the production of porous aggregates for agricultural purposes. In general, by mutually mixing two waste raw materials, ceramic tiles with interesting functional properties can be obtained. The determining component of these masses is the presence of dolomite, which reduces the sintering interval and lowers the mechanical strength of the materials but within acceptable functional limits (standard). Exceeding the sintering temperature causes the rapid melting of the sets. Additionally, compositions with very high sludge content (>70%), while not suitable for traditional ceramic tiles due to their poor mechanical properties and deformation tendency, show characteristics similar to lightweight expanded clay aggregates used in horticulture and construction [53,54]. This suggests an alternative application pathway for high-sludge-content compositions, further expanding the potential for waste utilisation.
From an economic perspective, the utilisation of TG3 clay and post-flotation sludge offers substantial cost benefits. The geographical proximity of the waste sources (within 150 km) reduces transportation costs by approximately 20-30% compared with virgin raw materials [55]. The fine particle size distribution (95% and 89% <0.06 mm resp.) eliminates energy-intensive grinding operations, which typically represent 15-20% of ceramic processing costs [56].
The fluxing contaminations of the waste materials (14.4–17.2% CaO and 5.1–6.9% MgO) enable firing at temperatures of 1150–1200 °C rather than the 1200–1250 °C mostly required for conventional materials, which potentially reduce energy consumption by 8-12% in the firing process [57]. While the costs of energy represent 30–40% of total production expenses in the ceramic industry [58], this reduction translates into significant savings.
A cost analysis indicates that the production of ceramic tiles by using the presented waste materials can reduce overall manufacturing costs by 25–35% compared with conventional production methods using raw natural materials [59,60].
The environmental benefits further enhance economic feasibility through reduced waste management costs. The utilisation of a portion of this waste into ceramic production reduces disposal costs while transforming an environmental issue into a value-added product. Quality control challenges related to waste composition variability can be addressed through homogenisation techniques and selective extraction, adding only 3–5% to production costs while maintaining the economic advantage [47]. Even with these additional quality control measures, the waste-derived ceramic tiles remain cost-competitive in the Polish market. This approach represents a potential industrial symbiosis model that combines environmental sustainability with economic viability [51].

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the innovative approach of simultaneously utilising two mining waste streams—TG3 clay from the Turoszów lignite mine and post-flotation sludge from the KGHM-Gilów copper mine—for ceramic tile production. The novelty of this research study lies in establishing a complete compositional spectrum of these wastes, enabling the production of different ceramic tile classes without additional virgin materials.
The study on varying mixture ratios and firing temperatures demonstrated that the ratio between waste materials determines the final product properties. Compositions containing ≤50% post-flotation sludge contamination resulted in sintered stoneware-type ceramics with mechanical bending strength of approximately 45 MPa and water absorption below 5%, suitable for frost-resistant ceramic tiles (group B Ia GL and UGL PN-EN 14411:2016). Conversely, compositions containing >50% post-flotation sludge produce porous faience-type ceramics with mechanical strength exceeding 15 MPa and water absorption above 20%, appropriate for ceramic wall tiles (group B III GL).
Microstructural analysis revealed an evolution from isolated closed pores in low-sludge-content compositions to interconnected open pores in high-sludge-content compositions, directly corresponding changes in rational composition, particularly in the increase in carbonate content and decrease in clay minerals as sludge content increases. The presence of dolomite: Post-flotation sludge contains large amounts of dolomite, which significantly affects the sintering interval and firing temperature of ceramics, as well as other functional and technological parameters.
The economic and environmental viability of this approach is enhanced by several factors: the abundance of these materials, their geographical proximity (within 150 km) and the advantageous physical characteristics of the waste streams. The fine particle size distribution (90% < 0.06 mm) eliminates the need for grinding operations, significantly reducing processing costs and energy consumption compared with conventional ceramic production methods.
This research study provides a practical pathway to transform mining waste from environmental liability into valuable ceramic products while adhering to circular economy principles. The methodology developed can be applied to similar waste streams in other regions, offering a sustainable waste management strategy that addresses environmental concerns, conserves natural resources and creates economically viable products that meet industry standards.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, P.I.; methodology, A.S., J.M.-P. and J.D.; formal analysis J.M.-P. and J.D.; investigation, J.M.-P. and J.D.; writing—original draft preparation, P.I; writing—review and editing, A.S. and J.D.; supervision, A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research study received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 15 03957 g001
Figure 1. A layer of grey clay from the “B” complex.
Figure 1. A layer of grey clay from the “B” complex.
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Figure 2. Location of individual sets in rational composition system (square markers).
Figure 2. Location of individual sets in rational composition system (square markers).
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Figure 3. Shrinkage as a function of firing temperature.
Figure 3. Shrinkage as a function of firing temperature.
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Figure 4. Water absorption of compositions after firing as a function of temperature.
Figure 4. Water absorption of compositions after firing as a function of temperature.
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Figure 5. Open porosity of compositions after firing as a function of temperature.
Figure 5. Open porosity of compositions after firing as a function of temperature.
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Figure 6. Microstructure of sets with different contamination amounts of sludge fired at 1150 °C with local EDS analysis: (a) Sludge 0%; (b) Sludge 10%; (c) Sludge 50%; (d) Sludge 80%.
Figure 6. Microstructure of sets with different contamination amounts of sludge fired at 1150 °C with local EDS analysis: (a) Sludge 0%; (b) Sludge 10%; (c) Sludge 50%; (d) Sludge 80%.
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Applsci 15 03957 g007aApplsci 15 03957 g007b
Figure 7. Microstructure of sets with different contamination amounts of sludge fired at 1150 °C: (a) Sludge 0%; (b) Sludge 10%; (c) Sludge 50%; (d) Sludge 80%.
Figure 7. Microstructure of sets with different contamination amounts of sludge fired at 1150 °C: (a) Sludge 0%; (b) Sludge 10%; (c) Sludge 50%; (d) Sludge 80%.
Applsci 15 03957 g007aApplsci 15 03957 g007b
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Figure 8. Mechanical strength of compositions after firing as a function of temperature.
Figure 8. Mechanical strength of compositions after firing as a function of temperature.
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Figure 9. Water absorption and mechanical bending strength in terms of tile classification according to ISO 10545-4.
Figure 9. Water absorption and mechanical bending strength in terms of tile classification according to ISO 10545-4.
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Figure 10. Mechanical bending strength for faience wall tiles according to ISO 10545-4.
Figure 10. Mechanical bending strength for faience wall tiles according to ISO 10545-4.
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Table 1. Average grain size of flotation tailings deposited at the “Gilów” facility.
Table 1. Average grain size of flotation tailings deposited at the “Gilów” facility.
Grain Size
Class [mm]Content [%]
>0.22.0
0.2–0.14.6
0.1–0.062.3
<0.0689.9
Table 2. The average chemical composition of the most important elements of the flotation tailings deposited in the “Gilów” facility.
Table 2. The average chemical composition of the most important elements of the flotation tailings deposited in the “Gilów” facility.
ComponentContent [%wt]
SiO260.0–63.0
Al2O33.9–4.9
CaO14.4–17.2
MgO5.1–6.9
K2O1.1–1.5
Na2O0.29–0.31
Fe2O30.55–0.65
LOI10.0–11.0
Cu(0.92–0.93)10−6
Ag(14.6–14.7) 10−6
Co(23.0–24.1) 10−6
Table 3. Physicochemical features of Tomaszów refractory and stoneware clays.
Table 3. Physicochemical features of Tomaszów refractory and stoneware clays.
Physicochemical Features“Clean”“Grey”Test Temperature
Al2O3 [%]15.0–22.019.1–20.3
Fe2O3 [%]0.7–2.01.1–1.3
SiO2 [%]55.0–69.057.7–62.9
TiO2 [%]0.1–0.80.7–0.8
CaO [%]0.1-0.30.9–0.92
MgO [%]0.1–0.50.1–0.3
Na2O [%]0.1–0.20.1–0.2
K2O [%]2.3–4.52.9–3.1
Mechanical strength in raw condition [MPa]6.5–12.02.5–4.525 °C
Water absorption [%]10.0–11.0
8.3–8.8
6.0–6.5		10.0–11.0
7.0–8.0
2.1–4.0		1120 °C
1180 °C
1240 °C
Drying shrinkage [%]3.9–4.15.5–6.5
Contractility [%]9.5–11.0
11.0–12.0
12.2–14.8		8.2–8.3
10.0–10.9
11.6–11.7		1120 °C
1180 °C
1240 °C
Whiteness after firing [%]57–69
51–62
45–75		48–49
43–46
39–42		1120 °C
1140 °C
1240 °C
Loss of ignition [%]13.113.8
Kaolinite [%]22–2867–69
Illite [%]17–270.1–0.9
Quartz57–6257.6–63.0
Residue 0.06 mm [%]40–424.6–5.0
0–2 µm [%]8055
0–5 µm [%]9075
Mixing water [%]33.133.9
Table 4. Oxide compositions of raw materials used for research.
Table 4. Oxide compositions of raw materials used for research.
OxidesTG3clay [%]Tailing Sludge [%]
SiO260.361.0
Al2O319.74.4
CaO0.915.9
MgO0.26.0
K2O3.01.3
Na2O0.10.3
Fe2O31.20.6
LOI13.810.5
Ʃ100.0100.0
Table 5. Rational compositions of sets of masses of ceramic tiles.
Table 5. Rational compositions of sets of masses of ceramic tiles.
Mass SymbolTG3
[%]		Sludge
[%]		Clay Minerals [%]Quartz
[%]		Feldspar [%]Carbonates [%]
P010006614191
P190106019192
P280205425174
P370304830175
P460404335166
P550503640168
P640603046159
P7307025511410
P8208019561411
P9109013611313
P1001009641314
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Izak, P.; Delihowski, J.; Mastalska-Popławska, J.; Stempkowska, A. Utilisation of Mining Waste for Production of Ceramic Tiles. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3957. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073957

AMA Style

Izak P, Delihowski J, Mastalska-Popławska J, Stempkowska A. Utilisation of Mining Waste for Production of Ceramic Tiles. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(7):3957. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073957

Chicago/Turabian Style

Izak, Piotr, Jurij Delihowski, Joanna Mastalska-Popławska, and Agata Stempkowska. 2025. "Utilisation of Mining Waste for Production of Ceramic Tiles" Applied Sciences 15, no. 7: 3957. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073957

APA Style

Izak, P., Delihowski, J., Mastalska-Popławska, J., & Stempkowska, A. (2025). Utilisation of Mining Waste for Production of Ceramic Tiles. Applied Sciences, 15(7), 3957. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073957

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