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Review

A Review and Future Directions on the Deterioration Evaluation of Concrete Utility Poles

by
Takayuki Ueno
1,
Hiroki Tamai
2,*,
Kanoko Yasukawa
2 and
Masahiro Haruguchi
1
1
Research Institute, Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc., 2-1-82 Watanabe-dori, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka 810-8720, Japan
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 3527; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073527
Submission received: 9 February 2025 / Revised: 16 March 2025 / Accepted: 21 March 2025 / Published: 24 March 2025
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Abstract

:
Utility poles are widely utilized to support the distribution lines that deliver electricity produced at power stations to users. The need for utility pole maintenance has increased due to aging, and it is considered necessary to suggest standards and inspection methods for efficient maintenance. To improve the efficiency of pole maintenance, it is essential to organize the deterioration process and replacement indicators based on the structural dynamics of utility poles and suggest methods for evaluating deterioration using non-destructive testing. This paper summarizes previous technical trends and future issues regarding the efficient maintenance of utility poles by summarizing existing standards and research regarding deterioration factors, dynamic characteristics, and evaluation methods. As a result, for more efficient concrete utility pole maintenance, it is essential to collect data regarding the ultimate states of poles subjected to cyclic wind and earthquake loading over a long time and to analyze the correlation between the degree of damage and the data obtained by non-destructive inspection.

1. Introduction

Utility poles are widely utilized to support the distribution lines that deliver electricity produced at power stations to users. Wooden poles are the main material used worldwide, along with concrete and steel poles. Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) poles [1] have also been used in recent years. The need for utility pole maintenance has increased due to aging, and it is considered necessary to suggest standards and inspection methods for efficient maintenance.
In Japan, prestressed concrete poles are used, as shown in Figure 1. The undergrounding rate of power lines in Japan, as shown in Table 1 [2], is less than 10%, which is extremely low compared to other countries where urban undergrounding has been completed. Furthermore, as shown in Table 2 [3], the total length of power lines is significantly longer than in other countries, resulting in more utility poles than in the rest of the world. Most of these utility poles were installed during the 1970s, making comprehensive repairs, replacements, and maintenance due to aging an urgent and critical issue. To define the standard service life, a visual survey of utility poles in service in Japan was conducted [4]. As a result, it was confirmed that the proportion of damaged poles exceeded 10% after 65 years of service. Based on these results, the standard service life of utility poles is set to 65 years, and a maintenance and rebuilding guideline for utility poles was organized for 2021 [5]. The poles installed in the 1970s have reached the point where they need to be repaired or reconstructed according to this standard service life. However, if rebuilding and repair plans are developed based on the standard service life, the number of poles built since the 1970s is approximately 80,000 per year, compared to a yearly replacement capacity of 30,000 poles per year, and there is concern that the annual number of poles to be rebuilt will exceed the construction capacity of local power companies. In addition, the standard service life expectancy is not optimal because the results are organized only from a visual survey of the external appearance mentioned above and have not been adequately evaluated from a structural dynamic perspective.
To improve the efficiency of pole maintenance, it is essential to organize the deterioration process and replacement indicators based on the structural dynamic of concrete utility poles and suggest methods for evaluating deterioration using non-destructive testing.
This paper reviews previous technical trends and challenges in the efficient maintenance of concrete utility poles by summarizing existing research on the subject.

2. Existing Standards of Japanese Concrete Utility Poles

This section summarizes the background surrounding the maintenance of Japanese concrete utility poles. The utility pole standards are organized according to various regulations in each country [6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. These regulations are based on the International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), a globally recognized authority responsible for creating international standards across all fields of electrical engineering. While the specific standards may differ, the underlying principles are generally similar. Regarding the strength design of utility poles, IEC-60826 specifies that wind loads are to be determined based on the average design wind speed over 10 min at a height of 10 m, as well as snow loads, which are adapted to the environmental conditions of each country. In Japan, the 10 min average design wind speed is set at 40 m/s, and in regions where snow loads occur, adjustment coefficients are considered during the design process [6]. It is worth noting that while these standards comprehensively address product quality and strength design of utility poles, they do not sufficiently cover inspection and maintenance.
The structure of the Japanese concrete utility poles under this study is illustrated in the figure. As shown in Figure 1, the structural type is a prestressed concrete (PC) structure, and the external shape is that of a tapered pole with a cross-section that decreases from the base (root) to the top (tip). The arrangement of the steel reinforcement includes both tensioned and non-tensioned materials of varying lengths, which are placed circumferentially along the same circle as the main reinforcing bars. One distinctive feature of the manufacturing process is that the poles are produced with a hollow cross-section due to centrifugal casting for concrete placement. The concrete used is densified by the centrifugal effect, which removes water accumulated in the center, resulting in a highly dense state and generally higher strength.
Regarding the maintenance of concrete utility poles, preventive maintenance efforts for utility poles are conducted through regular inspections. However, the deterioration assessment methods involve visual inspection, focusing on vertical and horizontal cracks, surface roughness, cross-sectional damage, and rebar corrosion. These are categorized into “deterioration levels” defined for each “type of deterioration” and are evaluated while taking into account “surrounding environmental factors” such as salt damage and frost damage [13].
Currently, there is no well-established quantitative evaluation method focusing on the dynamic performance, such as the remaining load capacity of utility poles, nor is there a comprehensive evaluation system using non-destructive testing equipment beyond visual inspections.

3. The Current Status and Issues of Concrete Utility Pole

This section summarizes the previous studies related to concrete utility poles maintenance. To identify issues related to the maintenance of concrete utility poles, previous research is summarized from three points of view: deterioration factors, dynamic characteristics, and evaluation method.

3.1. Deterioration Factors

Previous studies have investigated the corrosion of reinforcement bars and cracking of concrete due to salt damage and neutralization [14,15] (shown in Figure 2) and alkali-aggregate reactions [16]. Regarding the deterioration of concrete poles, Hashimoto et al. [14] confirmed that the salt damage to concrete poles may be caused by salt penetration through the vulnerable joints of the formwork when producing the poles. Focusing on salt damage and acid degradation of utility poles, Funamoto et al. [15] conducted appearance surveys of utility poles in seaside areas, hot spring areas, and urban areas and summarized the effects of the surrounding environment. The visual survey results showed that the deterioration progressed rapidly in the seaside location. In addition, hydrogen embrittlement has also been studied in Japan as a degradation event specific to concrete poles. Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which steel bars lose their elasticity due to hydrogen absorption, resulting in brittle rupture. This phenomenon occurs suddenly without warning signs, such as cracking or rusting. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs under three specific conditions: high-strength materials, stresses in the steel, and hydrogen supplied to the steel. Due to the high strength and prestressing forces applied to Japanese concrete poles, hydrogen embrittlement can occur when the progression of steel corrosion supplies hydrogen. Some cases have been confirmed in which hydrogen embrittlement has occurred. In previous studies, Fujimoto et al. [17] and Kamisho et al. [18] have investigated the remaining life assessment of degradation due to hydrogen embrittlement and the optimization of inspection cycles for concrete poles.
Other than environmental factors, damage to concrete poles caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons has been confirmed in post-disaster surveys [19,20]. Previous studies have summarized most of the deterioration factors of concrete utility poles that should be considered.

3.2. Dynamic Characteristics and Load-Bearing Behavior

This section discusses previous studies on dynamic and load-bearing performance of concrete utility poles [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. Research on the dynamic performance of utility poles has mainly focused on seismic resistance and load-bearing capacity. Regarding seismic resistance, Ito et al. [21] conducted a cyclic loading test on a 3.5 m concrete pole imaged Japanese prestressed concrete poles, which had been reinforced with steel after being damaged by seismic loads. The study confirmed improvements in seismic performance, such as increased bending strength due to steel reinforcement. Amir et al. [22] developed an analytical model for evaluating the seismic performance of concrete utility poles. For load-bearing capacity, Tsunemoto et al. [23] conducted monotonic loading tests on intentionally damaged concrete utility poles to investigate the relationship between the degree of cracking or delamination and strength. They proposed a diagnostic method for deterioration based on damage levels. Vivek et al. [24] examined the collapse mechanism and the impact of soil conditions on utility poles installed in soft ground in rural India through load-bearing tests and analyses simulating actual operational conditions. Mehran et al. [25] used full-scale H-shaped concrete poles in a push-over test. They conducted a 3D finite element analysis based on a seven-span model of utility poles to evaluate their dynamic performance. Their studies demonstrated that unexpected loads, such as gusts during adverse weather, could cause pole failures even when designed according to wind and snow load standards. They also identified weak points in utility poles and proposed measures to enhance their sustainability. Kuwahara et al. [26] analyzed seismic response using a spring-mass model of Japanese prestressed concrete poles under different transformer installation conditions. They found that earthquakes with acceleration around 200 gal did not lead to the collapse of prestressed concrete poles or the fall of transformers. Kliukas et al. [28] conducted visual inspections and strength tests on RC utility poles in Lithuania that had been in service for approximately 30 years. While small cracks and rebar corrosion were observed, the poles met design requirements, though their resistance to torsion had decreased. Additionally, centrifugally cast RC poles showed superior durability. Manos et al. [29] performed tests on full-scale prestressed concrete poles to confirm their strength, applying pure bending or combined bending and torsion loads using wires at the top. Their results confirmed that failure occurred due to concrete compression, demonstrating the effectiveness of this method for assessing concrete failure states and required performance.
While studies on the dynamic and load-bearing performance have primarily focused on confirming seismic resistance and the effectiveness of repair and reinforcement methods, such cases are limited [21,22,23,24,25,26,27]. Various tests have been conducted to evaluate the dynamic performance of utility poles [28,29], but differences in shape and the presence or absence of prestress between countries were identified. Therefore, it is necessary to perform full-scale testing on the specific concrete utility poles under consideration. Furthermore, understanding the dynamic properties of utility poles under sustained loads, such as wind loads applied over long periods, is crucial to improving maintenance and management efficiency. However, such topics have not been addressed in previous studies. Conducting load tests on full-scale utility poles to gather further data is imperative.

3.3. Deterioration Evaluation

Regarding research on non-destructive testing methods, Iwatsuki et al. [30] conducted a study on damage evaluation of concrete utility poles, focusing on the propagation speed of ultrasonic waves. The study used Hume pipes with hollow interiors similar to Japanese concrete poles for ultrasonic measurements. The effects of intentionally induced cracks on measurement results were analyzed, and it was confirmed that ultrasonic waves’ propagation speed decreases as the cracks’ width and length increase. Similarly, Matsuo et al. [31] investigated the evaluation of internal voids and the degree of corrosion of internal steel reinforcement using the impact elastic wave method. Their study revealed that as damage and rebar corrosion progress, concrete poles exhibit delays in wave propagation speed, along with increased kurtosis and skewness in the data distribution.
Elective inspection methods have also been explored in the context of rebar deterioration evaluation in concrete utility poles [32,33,34]. For example, Sae et al. [33] studied a non-destructive inspection method for the health assessment of internal rebar in utility poles by measuring magnetic field signals in actual poles. Based on the measurement data, they developed an algorithm to evaluate deterioration through pattern recognition of healthy and damaged states. Li et al. [35] proposed a non-destructive inspection method using an endoscope probe inserted into drainage holes attached to utility poles to observe inner surface cracks. Their research included model analysis of internal crack formation, enabling the evaluation of the internal cracking state and overall damage of the poles.
Although there are examples of non-destructive testing methods for concrete utility poles [30,31,32,33,34,35,36], the number of studies remains limited. Among the literature reviewed in this study on non-destructive testing, no studies were found addressing iron utility poles or FRP utility poles. The studies were scarce even for concrete utility poles, with most focusing on wooden utility poles. Consequently, it was decided to investigate the existing research on wooden utility poles, which constitutes the bulk of prior research on utility poles, to identify insights that could be applied to the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles.

4. The Current Studies of Wood Utility Pole

This chapter organizes previous studies on the deterioration factors, structural performance evaluation, and deterioration assessment methods of wooden utility poles, similar to those of concrete utility poles.

4.1. Deterioration Factors and Dynamic Performance

The deterioration factors of wooden utility poles have been identified as decay and damage caused by fungi and termites and damage inflicted by woodpeckers [37,38]. The decay of wooden utility poles generally starts at the point of contact with the ground and spreads throughout the pole shown in Figure 3 [39]. Currently, studies are being conducted on proposing probabilistic deterioration prediction models and applying non-destructive testing (NDT) technologies.
Additionally, numerous cases of collapse due to hurricanes have been reported for wooden utility poles [40,41,42,43,44]. In the United States, it is estimated that power outages caused by hurricanes result in approximately $270 million in annual repair costs [41]. Therefore, efficient and cost-effective replacement plans are crucial for utility pole maintenance. Moreover, it is necessary to account for the increase in damage associated with the growing intensity of hurricanes due to recent climate change [45].
Numerous studies on probabilistic deterioration prediction models are currently being undertaken in response to such deterioration phenomena in wooden utility poles. Further details on previous studies will be discussed later. While the deterioration factors for wooden utility poles have been organized, unlike concrete utility poles, limited research focuses on the mechanisms of deterioration factors. Most existing studies use non-destructive testing methods to predict and detect damage caused by deterioration.
Regarding mechanical properties, Merschman et al. [46] focused on reinforcing corroded wooden utility poles using FRP (Fiber-Reinforced Polymer). They demonstrated that FRP reinforcement effectively extends the service life of wooden utility poles.
There are fewer studies on mechanical properties for wooden utility poles than for concrete utility poles. The studies identified primarily aim to verify the effectiveness of reinforcement methods. However, sufficient investigations into the ultimate state and other mechanical properties have not been conducted.
Although deterioration evaluation methods using probabilistic simulations, as will be discussed later, have been extensively studied as an approach for efficient replacement evaluation, the mechanical performance of actual utility poles has not been thoroughly examined. Previous studies have also highlighted this as a future challenge for properly evaluating deterioration and damage in wooden utility poles, similar to concrete utility poles [47].

4.2. Deterioration Evaluation of Wood Utility Pole

More studies have been conducted on deterioration evaluation methods for wooden utility poles compared to concrete utility poles.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods utilizing vibrations [48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62] involve propagating guided waves into the interior of utility poles using ultrasonic waves or impact hammers. The deterioration evaluation is conducted by analyzing the waveforms of the received guided waves, propagation speed changes, the utility poles’ natural frequencies following the flow shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5, and their vibration modes.
As an example, Jad et al. [48] suggested the possibility of evaluating the embedded length of a utility pole and the degree of damage to the buried section from the propagation wave characteristics of ultrasonic waves propagated into the pole using Micro Fiber Composites for non-destructive inspection of defects in wooden utility poles. In the experiment, an MFC ultrasonic wave generator and sensor were attached to a wooden utility pole, The ultrasonic waves were measured to confirm the changes in the waveforms of healthy poles and damaged poles shown in Figure 6. It has also been confirmed that the measured waveforms can be decomposed and detected using CEEMDAN (complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition with adaptive noise) to more clearly confirm damage. Dackermann et al. [49,50] proposed a method for damage assessment, applying machine learning algorithms to perform pattern recognition and classification of statistically transformed measurement signals to perform damage classification for structural health monitoring (SHM) of wooden utility poles and to assess the health of utility poles, including embedded sections. They also proposed an automatic determination system based on this method. Regarding the problems with the current non-destructive inspection using guided waves, it can only pick up damage in the range where the guided waves propagate. Hence, the evaluation is localized, and it is difficult to evaluate the degree of damage. However, the presence or absence of damage can be evaluated.
In nondestructive inspection using vibration [57,58,59,60,61,62], the measured acceleration and displacement spectrum are analyzed to check the deterioration of the utility poles following the flow shown in Figure 5. If there is damage, the difference in vibration frequency and decay, which are obtained as vibration characteristics like those shown in Figure 7, can confirm the presence or absence of damage on the utility pole.
For example, Tsang et al. [57] investigated the possibility of managing the condition of utility poles from the spectral peaks identified by the Fast Fourier Transform of data acquired from vibrating wooden utility poles. By comparing the frequencies obtained by Fourier transforming the acceleration measured by accelerometers installed on 15 wooden utility poles, it was confirmed that the frequencies obtained varied between healthy poles, poles with acceptable damage, and poles with severe damage.
Xiaoli et al. [58] proposed a method using frequency modulation empirical mode decomposition (FM-EMD) to estimate the soundness of wooden utility poles from their vibration modes. In this method, multiple vibration modes from a wooden utility pole are decomposed into their respective single modes using FM-EMD to obtain the natural frequencies and decay coefficients, and the health of the pole is estimated from the obtained sticking frequencies and decay constants.
Simulation models have also been used to assess applicability in non-destructive testing using vibration. For example, Mohammad et al. [59] measured the frequency response function (FRF) from a vibration experiment based on a simulated utility pole. They developed an analytical model that can reproduce the results of this experiment. The experimental results show a change in frequency in the case of the damaged beam cable model, suggesting the possibility of confirming the presence or absence of damage if the model can be used on a full-scale utility pole.
Unlike the guided waves described above, non-destructive measurement by vibration can be used to investigate the performance of the utility pole structure as a whole and, therefore, seems suitable for structural evaluation. Although it has been confirmed that the vibration characteristics change according to the degree of damage, the relationship between the two has not been fully established, and the data need to be accumulated for application to maintenance.
A simulation model of utility poles is created using non-destructive evaluation methods to calculate failure probability [40,41,42,43,44,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77], following the flow shown in Figure 8. This approach evaluates replacement by calculating the probability of failure based on environmental conditions such as wind speed, service life, and dimensions. This method is widely applied to wooden utility poles. Wooden utility poles, rich in organic material, are prone to advanced corrosion. As a result, strength degradation occurs over time, and time-dependent strength degradation prediction models have been proposed [64]. In addition to these models, numerous simulations have been conducted to account for failure probability, considering factors such as wind loads from hurricanes and additional loads generated by the inclination of utility poles.
For example, Darestani et al. [70,71] proposed a vulnerability assessment model for utility poles with parameters such as type of pole, length, years in service, number and diameter of wires, span of wires, wind speed, and wind direction. The model of a utility pole shown in Figure 9 is considered. The probability of failure is evaluated for each type of utility pole (class 1 to 7, according to US standards) using the number of years in service, length, wind speed, and other parameters, and a vulnerability assessment model is developed. The figures below summarize the relationship between wind speed and the probability of failure for wooden utility poles of classes 1 to 7, as shown in Figure 10.
Gustavsen et al. [72] propose two probabilistic methods for economical and efficient maintenance of wooden utility poles. The first method simulates the number of utility poles to be replaced in the future from two points of view: damage due to climate and replacement due to maintenance. The second method simulates the number of utility poles that are destroyed by a single strong typhoon.
Darestani et al. [73,74] researched a method to calculate the probability of destruction of utility poles when subjected to typhoon wind loads. The method used the poles’ service life and typhoon wind speed as variables in the simulation.
Bjarnadottir et al. [41] are working on a framework to help reduce the cost of replacing wooden poles by combining a prediction model of age and hurricane-related damage to wooden poles with a life cycle cost analysis for a given area. Many such studies, including simulation of failure probability and cost estimation for repair, have been carried out and may be useful as an efficient cost-effectiveness assessment method for wooden poles.
Another probabilistic approach is assessing the degree of damage from the poles’ visible tilting (deformation). Lee et al. [75,76] have developed a method to estimate the probability of failure when tilted poles are loaded with wind pressure, overturning forces, and conductor tension on the wires. The method has been trialed in a case study concerning parts of Houston, Texas. The proposed method benefits practitioners by facilitating effective risk-informed decision-making to prioritize maintenance tasks over many leaning poles in the distribution infrastructure system before the hurricane season and is effective in increasing community resilience to cascading power outages.
Simulation methods generally involve creating a three-dimensional model, assigning variables such as wind speed and pole dimensions to the model, calculating the probability of destruction of utility poles, and applying the results to replacement evaluations. However, as dynamic studies of actual wood poles are not well organized, it is anticipated that it may be essential to evaluate the structural performance of wooden poles in combination with an assessment, such as their end state. To reduce the risk of collapsing old poles, approximately 300,000 poles are replaced every year in the eastern states of Australia, and it has been observed that up to 80% of the poles replaced are still in excellent condition [51], so dynamic evaluation is also considered important from the perspective of cost reduction.
Other non-destructive evaluation studies of utility poles have been carried out in addition to the abovementioned methods. Research has also been conducted to improve the visual assessment of external appearance by matching it with the above-mentioned probabilistic simulation and using UAVs to improve the efficiency of visual inspections [78,79,80,81,82,83].
For example, Kim. et al. [78] proposed a method to assess the probability of pole failure by utilizing 2D images of poles taken by a drone and estimating the inclination of the pole in the image. Alan et al. [79,80] propose a method for estimating the strength of utility poles using machine learning from the collapse of poles obtained from images of the poles taken by drones. The loads considered in this study should be limited to wind and gravity. Future issues are also discussed, such as the importance of soil conditions and the aging of materials, which need to be considered in the future. As mentioned above, various studies are being conducted, such as using drones and other equipment to take images and machine learning to improve the efficiency of visual observation, and applying the estimation mentioned above of failure probability to wooden utility poles to estimate strength from the images obtained. Nguyen et al. [82] summarize the existing research on the advancement of visual inspection of power transmission and distribution facilities and state that, until now, the inspection of power transmission and distribution facilities has generally been carried out manually or by helicopter. Still, in recent years, the use of drones, automatic helicopters, robots, etc., has been investigated. The current issues regarding the advancement of image diagnosis include the lack of image data on damaged equipment, the inability to detect even internal damage, and the difficulty of detecting minute parts.
For other methods, Benoit [83] proposed a nondestructive evaluation method for wooden utility poles based on the compressive strength and moisture content converted from the density measurement of the wood near the ground surface of the pole shown in Figure 11. The study confirmed a correlation between the strength estimated from the density and the strength of wooden utility poles.

5. Issues for Concrete Utility Pole Maintenance

This chapter organizes the future challenges of utility pole maintenance based on insights from previous studies on utility pole maintenance reviewed in the earlier chapters.

5.1. Issues for the Deterioration Evaluation of Concrete Utility Poles

Previous studies on the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles found that, partly [30,31,32,33,34,35,36] due to the widespread use of wooden utility poles worldwide, concrete poles have not been sufficiently studied as research subjects. It is crucial to begin by accumulating the necessary data for the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles.
For the correlation between non-destructive testing data and mechanical damage required for deterioration evaluation, previous studies have addressed aspects such as seismic performance [21,22,26] and the analysis of failure mechanisms in collapse cases [24]. Understanding the mechanical properties of utility poles is essential to improve maintenance efficiency. However, from the maintenance perspective, it is important to grasp the mechanisms of deterioration in actual service poles and the threshold of deterioration levels at which replacement becomes necessary. These aspects, however, have not been covered in the existing research on concrete utility poles. Therefore, future studies on the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles should focus on organizing the mechanisms of mechanical damage and fracture progression in service poles and defining the ultimate state and damage conditions that necessitate replacement.
Existing studies on the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles using non-destructive testing methods are limited but have addressed advancements in vibration [30,31], visual inspections [35,36], and the evaluation of rebar deterioration using electromagnetics [32,33,34]. Although non-destructive testing results allow for detecting damage in utility poles, it remains challenging to determine whether the pole is safe in its current state or requires repair. Further data collection is necessary to evaluate the degree of deterioration in utility poles. This difficulty arises partly because the mechanical properties of utility poles have not been sufficiently organized, making it challenging to define the degree of deterioration based on data obtained through non-destructive testing. To enhance the efficiency of utility pole maintenance, it is also important to organize the correlation between changes in the mechanical properties of poles and changes in measurement data obtained through non-destructive testing.
Previous literature has also discussed challenges related to deterioration evaluation methods using non-destructive testing for wooden utility poles. Nguyen et al. [47] reviewed the current state and challenges of non-destructive evaluation methods implemented to efficiently maintain wooden utility poles in Australia. They highlighted the need for more quantitative methods or data collection to calculate the remaining load capacity of utility poles, a challenge common to wooden utility poles. In the future, it is important to check the simulations against experiments using actual poles.
Based on the above, previous studies on the maintenance of concrete utility poles have not sufficiently addressed damage progression over long-term service nor the correlation between non-destructive testing results and damage progression. The accumulation of further data is necessary for future research.

5.2. Issues for Applying Non-Destructive Testing Methods to Concrete Utility Poles

Regarding the application of deterioration evaluation methods discussed in previous studies to the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles, vibration-based deterioration evaluation appears readily applicable [30,31,39,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62], as previous studies have demonstrated its effectiveness on concrete utility poles. Vibration-based deterioration evaluation has also been frequently employed to assess deterioration in existing concrete structures [84,85,86,87]. Moczko et al. [84] showed that impact echo and impulse response are effective nondestructive testing methods for evaluating the deterioration of concrete bridges. Abhijeet et al. [85] proposed a structural reliability evaluation method for age-related deterioration using a rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse. Kamran et al. [86] proposed a method for predicting the compressive strength of concrete by comparing non-destructive testing methods using the rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse methods and applying machine learning to a destructive test of a concrete cylinder specimen and a test specimen. As described above, evaluation methods for the deterioration of concrete structures are widely used based on non-destructive testing results such as ultrasonic waves and vibration characteristics. Therefore, applying the above method of evaluating the degree of deterioration based on the results of nondestructive testing to evaluate concrete utility poles is also considered effective.
Vibration-based deterioration evaluation methods using ultrasonic waves often identify localized damage [30,39,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56], such as cracks in the measured area or embedded portions. However, this approach may not be suitable for assessing the overall damage to structures. If the influence of localized damage on the deterioration or failure of utility poles can be clarified, it would be possible to narrow down the critical localized damage to focus on. Collapse cases of concrete utility poles reported in previous studies have shown that, excluding collapses caused by weak ground rather than the poles’ failure, failure is often observed near the ground level where the bending moment is greatest [19,20,21]. Therefore, ultrasonic-based deterioration evaluation methods that focus on identifying changes in damage around ground level and tracking the progression of deterioration in concrete utility poles are considered feasible.
Regarding deterioration evaluation using vibration properties [31,57,58,59,60,61,62], such as vibration modes and natural frequencies, this approach is deemed appropriate for evaluating the overall damage condition of structures, as it involves vibrating the entire utility pole. However, factors such as differences in pole length and reinforcement, attached components like transformers and electric wires, and the ground conditions where poles are installed are thought to significantly influence vibration properties. Although previous studies have focused on changes in natural frequencies under the same boundary conditions, they have not sufficiently addressed changes in initial values under those conditions. Therefore, future challenges in vibration-based deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles include estimating the initial values of healthy indicators, such as natural frequencies.
For deterioration evaluation based on failure probability [40,41,42,43,44,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77], many studies on wooden utility poles have constructed models combining time-dependent deterioration due to corrosion with mechanical damage, as demonstrated by Wang et al. [64]. For concrete utility poles, while studies have organized the relationship between failure probability and the design and manufacturing costs of utility poles based on Monte Carlo simulations [88,89], no research aligned with the purpose of this study has been conducted. To apply probabilistic evaluation to concrete utility poles, it is necessary to begin by constructing an analytical model. Models that consider the mechanical failure probability caused by wind loads in wooden utility poles, including stress increases due to pole inclination [64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77], are also applicable to concrete utility poles. However, since the time-dependent deterioration models for wooden utility poles are based on wood decay [87], they cannot be applied to concrete. Therefore, as a future challenge, it is necessary to propose a time-dependent deterioration model tailored to concrete utility poles. Consequently, applying deterioration evaluation based on failure probability to concrete utility poles is unlikely to be realized shortly.
Regarding the efficiency of deterioration evaluation through the advancement of external visual inspections and the organization of measurement results using UAVs and AI [35,36,78,79,80,81], it is believed that this method can be applied to concrete utility poles if data on the correlation between pole inclination, failure probability, and damage level can be collected. Existing studies have already performed feature analysis and narrowed down necessary parameters to some extent, making them a useful reference for selecting the conditions to focus on during the deterioration evaluation of utility poles.
In previous studies, many cases utilized training data from damaged utility poles to identify poles in an unhealthy state. However, correlations with the actual damage state of utility poles and clear replacement thresholds have not been addressed. Therefore, as mentioned earlier, clarifying the damaged state of utility poles and correlating it with collected data are essential for improving evaluation efficiency.
Similarly, the challenges are identical for other deterioration evaluation methods using various measurement values, such as density measurements of wooden poles and rebar deterioration evaluations via electromagnetics.
The flow of a rational deterioration assessment method for utility poles, as derived from this review, is shown in Figure 12. The evaluation method allows for deterioration assessment by incorporating not only the aspects addressed in previous studies but also insights gained from understanding dynamic characteristics based on experimental results (ISSUE I) and establishing boundary values for the measured vibration characteristics (ISSUE II).

6. Summary

This paper examines technological trends and challenges in utility pole maintenance by summarizing existing regulations and research findings related to utility poles. The results are as follows:
  • Regarding deterioration evaluation methods for concrete utility poles, there are few case studies due to the global prevalence of wooden utility poles. However, some findings from wooden utility poles can be applied.
  • In existing studies, it is important to understand the mechanisms of deterioration in concrete utility poles in service and identify the threshold of accumulated mechanical damage requiring replacement. However, existing research on concrete utility poles has not addressed these aspects. Future studies on the deterioration evaluation of concrete utility poles should focus on analyzing the mechanisms of mechanical damage and failure progression in service poles and defining the ultimate state and damage conditions that necessitate replacement.
  • Non-destructive inspection methods for concrete utility poles, such as vibration-based evaluation methods and advanced visual inspection using drones, which have also been explored for wooden utility poles, are deemed appropriate. While the application of failure probability analysis, which requires the construction of analytical models, may take time, it is worth considering due to its compatibility with economic impact assessments in existing studies. An important challenge for the future is the need to establish the correlation between damage states and data obtained through non-destructive testing, as current methods only allow for identifying the presence or absence of damage. This step is crucial for efficiently maintaining both concrete and wooden utility poles.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.U. and H.T.; methodology, T.U.; data curation, T.U. and K.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, T.U.; writing—review and editing, T.U. and H.T.; supervision, H.T. and M.H.; project administration, M.H. and H.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Takayuki Ueno and Masahiro Haruguchi were employed by the company Kyushu Electric Power Co., Inc. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Japanese standard utility pole (prestressed concrete pole).
Figure 1. Japanese standard utility pole (prestressed concrete pole).
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Figure 2. Deterioration of concrete utility pole (rusting and cracks).
Figure 2. Deterioration of concrete utility pole (rusting and cracks).
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Figure 3. Deterioration of a wooden utility pole: (a) external damage as a reduction in cross-section; (b) internal damage due to fungal attack; (c) internal damage as a reduction in cross-section due to termites [39].
Figure 3. Deterioration of a wooden utility pole: (a) external damage as a reduction in cross-section; (b) internal damage due to fungal attack; (c) internal damage as a reduction in cross-section due to termites [39].
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Figure 4. Image and flow of evaluation methods by vibration acceleration due to guided waves.
Figure 4. Image and flow of evaluation methods by vibration acceleration due to guided waves.
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Figure 5. Image and flow of evaluation methods by natural vibration acceleration.
Figure 5. Image and flow of evaluation methods by natural vibration acceleration.
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Figure 6. Measurement method and detected waveforms in the experiment (a) and decomposed waveforms obtained using CEEMDAN (b) [48].
Figure 6. Measurement method and detected waveforms in the experiment (a) and decomposed waveforms obtained using CEEMDAN (b) [48].
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Figure 7. Image of vibration response and power spectra obtained from utility poles.
Figure 7. Image of vibration response and power spectra obtained from utility poles.
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Figure 8. Image and method of evaluation methods by calculating the probability of failure.
Figure 8. Image and method of evaluation methods by calculating the probability of failure.
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Figure 9. Models of poles for the probability of failure assessment [70].
Figure 9. Models of poles for the probability of failure assessment [70].
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Figure 10. Comparison of wind speeds and probability of failure for different classes of poles: Height considered as a design variable (a), Height considered as an uncertain variable (b) [70].
Figure 10. Comparison of wind speeds and probability of failure for different classes of poles: Height considered as a design variable (a), Height considered as an uncertain variable (b) [70].
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Figure 11. Image of density measurements at the base of the poles [82].
Figure 11. Image of density measurements at the base of the poles [82].
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Figure 12. Method of rational deterioration evaluation.
Figure 12. Method of rational deterioration evaluation.
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Table 1. Undergrounding rate of utility poles [2].
Table 1. Undergrounding rate of utility poles [2].
CityUndergrounding Rate (%)Inspection Year
Tokyo72015
Osaka52015
London1002015
Paris1002015
Washington D.C.652012
New York852016
Taipei852015
Table 2. Comparison of total electric length [3].
Table 2. Comparison of total electric length [3].
CountryTotal Electric Line Length (km)Undergrounding Rate (%)
Japan1,765,4570.3
Germany1,152,13887.5
Italy762,61633.1
France685,41338.9
United Kingdom408,87582.6
Spain383,20236.9
Sweden306,01977.2
Finland237,96637.5
Greece121,40911.2
Belgium120,64356.8
Denmark96,09395.9
Ireland69,20017.5
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Ueno, T.; Tamai, H.; Yasukawa, K.; Haruguchi, M. A Review and Future Directions on the Deterioration Evaluation of Concrete Utility Poles. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3527. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073527

AMA Style

Ueno T, Tamai H, Yasukawa K, Haruguchi M. A Review and Future Directions on the Deterioration Evaluation of Concrete Utility Poles. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(7):3527. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073527

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ueno, Takayuki, Hiroki Tamai, Kanoko Yasukawa, and Masahiro Haruguchi. 2025. "A Review and Future Directions on the Deterioration Evaluation of Concrete Utility Poles" Applied Sciences 15, no. 7: 3527. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073527

APA Style

Ueno, T., Tamai, H., Yasukawa, K., & Haruguchi, M. (2025). A Review and Future Directions on the Deterioration Evaluation of Concrete Utility Poles. Applied Sciences, 15(7), 3527. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073527

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