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Article

Relationship Between Fault Elements and the Structural Evolution of Strike–Slip Fault Zones: A Case Study from the Ordos Basin

by
Jingying Li
1,2 and
Minghui Yang
1,2,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Engineering, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
2
College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(23), 12821; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312821
Submission received: 17 October 2025 / Revised: 25 November 2025 / Accepted: 27 November 2025 / Published: 4 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Science and Technology)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study aims to explore the development characteristics and evolutionary patterns of strike–slip fault zones in carbonate rocks, through quantitative characterization of fault elements and their interrelationships. Taking three strike–slip fault zones in the Daniudi Block of the northeastern Ordos Basin, China, as examples, we analyzed the distribution of fault damage zone width and throw along the strike of the fault zones at equal intervals, based on data derived from 3D seismic interpretation. The relationship between damage zone width and throw was also explored. The results indicate the following: (1) The throw–distance curve of strike–slip fault zones exhibits bimodal or multimodal patterns. As the peak of the curve is located near the overlap zone of the fault, this signifies that the fault is in the independent stage, whereas a peak situated in the middle of a fault segment suggests that the strike–slip fault has achieved integrity through “hard linkage”. (2) The width of the fault damage zone is controlled by the scale of the fault zone and its associated structures. (3) A strong power–law relationship exists between the damage zone width and throw, with a more pronounced positive correlation observed in the Taigemiao Fault Zone. (4) The strike–slip fault zone is primarily composed of a “ternary” structure, including fault core, damage zone, and fracture zone, and has undergone three evolutionary stages. Analyzing the relationships among fault elements contributes to understanding the interaction and evolutionary history of subsurface strike–slip faults in the study area.

1. Introduction

Since the 1980s, the relationships among fault elements (such as fault length, maximum displacement, etc.) have been extensively studied [1]. The majority of scholars view the power–law relationship as the most suitable function for characterizing the distribution relationships among fault elements [1,2,3,4,5,6]. Among them, the displacement–distance relationship is the most widely applied, as it quantitatively reflects fault interactions and connectivity, making it a powerful tool for analyzing the intensity of tectonic deformation on faults [7], and an information carrier to the history of fault growth and interactions [8,9,10,11]. Currently, it has been widely used to provide insight into the propagation and slip history of faults [12,13], the location of hard linkage and soft linkage, and hence their growth and evolution in the present or in other geohistorical periods [14,15,16,17]. Furthermore, it has been effectively determined that fault evolution processes are connected by the growth and extension of segmental faults through displacement–distance curves [1,18].
In the long evolutionary history of basins, the segmented growth and connection of faults are universal [19], exerting considerable influence on basin evolution, the distribution of sedimentary systems, and stratigraphic architecture [20]. A three-stage model has been proposed to describe fault segment linkage [19]. The initial stage is the isolated nucleation stage, where fault segments approach each other but do not undergo spatial stacking or interaction [19]. Stage two is the “soft linkage” stage [3], in which the fault ends and begins to overlap spatially, but no obvious connection is formed. The fault displacement is transmitted through rotation or slope transformation of the fault. The last stage is the “hard linkage” stage [3], in which faults undergo significant connectivity through the destruction of transition zones [21].
Fault zones possess intricate internal structures, composed of highly deformed zones or zones with lower degrees of deformation, combined with extensively extended damage zones [22,23]. In fault-controlled oil and gas reservoirs, the fault structure influences the anisotropy of the strata [24,25], which in turn affects fluid flow [26,27].
The Daniudi Block, situated in the northeastern part of the Ordos Basin, serves as a significant gas source in North China. Currently, three newly discovered strike–slip faults have been identified within the block, extending over a length of more than 15 km on the coherence map. However, research on the internal structure, growth, and deformation mechanisms of strike–slip fault zones in the study area remains scarce, constraining the progress of oil and gas exploration and development. Therefore, this study utilized 3D seismic data to obtain the width of damage zone and throw of strike–slip fault zones, and explored the structural deformation characteristics and evolution of it by utilizing the relationships between fault elements. Although there may be some errors in the resolution of 3D seismic data compared to actual fault length and displacement, statistical data on fault elements can help understand the growth and deformation processes of medium-sized strike–slip faults (with a length greater than 10 km) in continental sedimentary basins.

2. Geological Setting

The Ordos Basin, situated in the western part of the North China Plate (Figure 1a), is a typical continental sedimentary basin and one of China’s principal basins hosting marine carbonate reservoirs [28]. It presently forms a topographic plateau encircled by orogenic belts. To the north, it borders the Yinshan–Yanshan Orogenic Belt; to the west, it is adjacent to the Helanshan Thrust Belt; to the east, it is near the Taihang–Lvliang Tectonic Belt; and to the south, it is adjacent to the Qinling–Dabie Orogenic Belt.
The basin features a gently dipping stratigraphy, characterized by a broad westward-inclined synclinal structure [29], as shown in profile A-B of Figure 1. The foundational stratigraphic framework comprises gently deposited Lower Paleozoic marine carbonate rocks on the Precambrian crystalline basement, successively overlain by Upper Carboniferous–Permian transitional coal-bearing series and continental clastic rocks. During the Mesozoic–Cenozoic era, multiple episodes of subsidence and sedimentation shaped the basin’s fundamental geometry and depositional patterns, forming the structural and sedimentary architecture seen today.
Applsci 15 12821 g001
Figure 1. Overview maps of the Ordos Basin and the surrounding area: (a) Location of the Ordos Basin in China. (b) Tectonic units, basement faults, and geological setting of the Ordos Basin and location of the study area [30,31]. (c) Primary fault zones on the Daniudi Block (the base map shows ancient karst landforms). NCB: North China Block, SCB: South China Block, TB: Tarim Block.
Figure 1. Overview maps of the Ordos Basin and the surrounding area: (a) Location of the Ordos Basin in China. (b) Tectonic units, basement faults, and geological setting of the Ordos Basin and location of the study area [30,31]. (c) Primary fault zones on the Daniudi Block (the base map shows ancient karst landforms). NCB: North China Block, SCB: South China Block, TB: Tarim Block.
Applsci 15 12821 g001
Influenced by the interaction between the North China Plate and peripheral plates, the Ordos Basin has undergone a prolonged process of intracontinental tectonic deformation. Previous studies have categorized the basin into six tectonic units, namely the Western Tianhuan Depression, the Western Margin Thrust Belt, the Eastern Jinxi Fold Belt, the Southern Weibei Uplift, the Northern Yimeng Uplift, and the Central Yishan Slope, based on its tectonic evolution history and current structural form (Figure 1b) [30,31].
The Daniudi Gas Field is situated at the border between Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia in the northeastern part of the Ordos Basin. Its main body extends across Ejin Horo Banner in Inner Mongolia and Yulin City in Shaanxi Province, covering an area of approximately 2003 km2 and featuring a nearly square shape on a map view. Its current structural position is in the northeastern part of the Yishan Slope, as illustrated in Figure 1c. Overall, it features a gentle monocline, with higher elevations in the northeast and lower elevations in the southwest [32]. In the block, fault structures are distributed in a disorderly manner; with small scales, nose-shaped uplift structures develop in the local area, and no significant structural traps are formed. The three newly discovered strike–slip faults are located at the southwest corner, east edge, and north edge of the block, specifically the NNW-trending Xiaohaotu Fault Zone, the NNW-trending Tuweihe Fault Zone, and the NEE-trending Taigemiao Fault Zone.
At the end of the Late Ordovician, influenced by the Caledonian orogeny, the Daniudi Block was uplifted and exposed, undergoing long-term weathering and erosion [32]. Subsequently, it underwent three significant tectonic events: the Indosinian compression stress; the tectonic reversal movement during the Mid-Yanshan period; and the tectonic compression folding movement in the Late Yanshan and Himalayan periods [33,34]. Other studies have indicated that the fracture-filling materials in the Ordovician Majiagou Formation of the Daniudi Gas Field encompass the Caledonian, Indosinian, Yanshanian, and Yanshan–Early Himalayan periods [35].

3. Data and Methods

This study is based on 3D seismic data of approximately 2000 km2 in the Daniudi Gas Field, supplemented by drilling and logging data. Drilling data is primarily utilized for horizon calibration, lithology determination, the observation of fractures and cracks, etc. Logging data is employed for the determination and verification of fracture zones. This article primarily utilizes imaging logs from two horizontal wells, DK13-FP6 and DK13-FP14, to verify the internal structure of the strike–slip fault zone. Seismic attributes are most used in fault identification [36], but one seismic attribute may lead to insufficient interpretation [37]. Therefore, we extracted multiple seismic attributes—such as coherence and curvature—to improve the accuracy and reliability of fault interpretation, which effectively enhanced the resolution of fracture feature images, constrained the measurement of fault damage zone width and vertical displacement (throw), and verified them through drilling and logging data. The coherence and curvature slices used in this paper include the bottom surface of the Jurassic (T5), the bottom surface of the Triassic (T8), the bottom surface of the Carboniferous (T9), and the bottom surface of the Cambrian (T11).

3.1. Measurement Method for Fault Elements

3.1.1. Measurement of Damage Zone Width

The internal structural types and extension range of fault zones are typically investigated using a zoning and sub-zoning classification methodology [38,39]. However, delineating the boundaries between fault cores and damage zones often poses a challenge. Considering that the magnitude of seismic coherence attribute values serves as an indicator of geological fragmentation [40], this paper employs seismic coherence attributes as the criterion for zoning strike–slip fault zones and identifying the boundaries of fault damage zones. The zoning is detailed as follows: low coherence values (0.7) correspond to carbonate rock surrounding areas distant from the fault, where rock formations exhibit minimal or no fracture deformation, and structural cracks are absent. The outcomes of zoning the internal structure of fault zones and determining the width of fault damage zones require verification through drilling and logging data (Figure 2a).

3.1.2. Throw from 3D Seismic Data

The term displacement refers to the total slip values measured on the fault plane [8]. Given the challenges in measuring the horizontal displacement of concealed strike–slip faults, and the fact that vertical displacements can indicate the deformation patterns and scales of these faults [41], this study uses the fault drop measured on seismic profiles perpendicular to the fault trace. The measurement approach follows earlier studies from the Tarim Basin, which utilized seismic reflection profiles to determine the reverse difference in the uplift section (Figure 3a) or sag section of strike–slip faults (Figure 3b) (i.e., the difference is positive in the compression section, and negative in the tension section) [42,43,44]. Given the Daniudi Block’s syncline structure with a defined strata dip angle, the seismic reflection data, read directly, must be calculated to determine the actual vertical displacement, see Figure 3a‘,b’. It is important to note that, limited by the seismic data’s resolution (when the fault displacement is below the resolution limit, the fault-tip region cannot be identified) [45], the inferred fault length typically is shorter than the actual length, with the discrepancy growing with depth [21,46].

4. Results

4.1. Imaging Logging Display of Strike–Slip Fault Zone

Several horizontal boreholes in the study area have revealed a strike–slip fault zone, consisting of three structural units: the fault core, the damage zone, and the fracture zone. The fault core is a highly deformed core area in a fault zone, mainly composed of strongly sheared and fractured rocks; the damage zone is a secondary deformation area surrounding a fault core, containing a large number of cracks and secondary faults; the fracture zone is a more peripheral area, characterized by scattered cracks and small deformations, with the weakest degree of deformation. For instance, the DK13-FP14 horizontal well intersected the middle segment of the Xiaohaotu Fault Zone, capturing imaging logs from the 3527–3554 m well section, which uncovered part of the internal structure of the Ordovician carbonate rock Fault Zone (see Figure 4). Since most of the well sections are situated in the compressed area between the southern and middle segments of the Xiaohaotu Fault Zone, the fracture is notably developed.
From the complete section of the DK13-FP14 horizontal well crossing the Xiaohaotu Fault Zone, an asymmetric fault core, damage zone, and fracture zone can be distinguished (example displayed in Figure 4). The 3227–3461 m section is a fracture zone; the 3461–3511 m section may be a fault core; the 3511–3660 m section is a damage zone; the 3660–4319 m section is a fracture zone; and north of the 4319 m boundary is the wall rock. The fault core and damage zone are approximately where the wellbore passes through the main body of the fault zone. Their logging-curve characteristics are manifested as an increase in gamma, a low value of resistivity finger peak, a significant increase in well diameter, and a slight decrease in drilling time. The resistivity of the fault core exhibits a characteristic of being high in the middle and low on both sides, with a high-resistance section in the middle and low values on both sides that are symmetrical. In the image of the damage zone, 36 black stripes and large-scale fractures are visible, with widths ranging from 0.5 to 3 m, exhibiting high-conductivity fractures. The resistivity of the fracture zone is low, and fractures are developed in the imaging. The resistivity values of the single fracture exhibit a northward deviation, indicating an asymmetric structure. This suggests that the fault zone might be a product of the left-lateral stress field, or due to the northern plate being the active plate. Additionally, the permeability decreases in multiple stages from the fault core towards the damage zone (green line), while the porosity significantly increases within the fault damage zone (yellow line); however, in the fracture zone, the porosity decreases, while the permeability slightly increases and then decreases. The differences between the damage zone and the fracture zone can be clearly observed through well-logging imaging, porosity, and permeability—see Figure 4.

4.2. Relationship Between Vertical Displacement and Distance

4.2.1. Xiaohaotu Fault Zone

The vertical displacement (throw) of the fault serves as an indicator of the stress and intensity of tectonic activities [41,45,47]. Therefore, to more precisely delineate the kinematic features of strike–slip fault activities, and considering the interactions between structural layer interfaces and unconformities, we measured the throws of the three primary faults across different strata. Here, the positive and negative throws, respectively, signify the uplift and sag of the strata, correlating with the transtension and transpression of the strike–slip fault.
Along with the Xiaohaotu Fault, fault throws were measured at the T11 and T9 interfaces, respectively (Figure 5a). As shown in Figure 5b, the fault throws at the bottom surface of the Cambrian are markedly greater than those at the top surface of the Ordovician, reflecting that the degree of strata deformation is more pronounced in the deep regions compared to the shallow regions [45]. This implies that the fault underwent more intense tectonic compression and twisting from the late Cambrian to the early Ordovician. In addition, the general shapes and trends of the curves for both are congruent—the fault on T9 developed after that on T11. The positive deformation amplitude curve exhibits both “single peak” and “double peaks”, with the peak situated near the overlap. Normally, a single independent fault has only one peak, and a bimodal pattern suggests that it may be formed by the connection of two independent faults. Additionally, there is a significant decrease in the fault throw at section 28, which corresponds to the transition between the southern and central segments of Xiaohaotu. A Tmin is observed at the junction of the segmented faults, judging by a contractional overstep, suggesting that Xiaohaotu remains in an isolated faulting stage [3,15,21]. Moreover, Tmax is offset from the center of the fault segment [48]; the closer Tmax is to the tip of overlap, the steeper the displacement gradient, whereas it becomes gentler in directions away from it [49]. The line chart indicates that the properties of Xiaohaotu Fault have changed at section 29 from transpression to transtension (Figure 5b). The negative deformation amplitude curve displays “double peaks,” with the curve’s overall positive-to-negative reversal signifying the distinctive ribbon effect of strike–slip faults.

4.2.2. Tuweihe Fault Zone

On the drop–distance line graphs at the T5, T9, and T11 interfaces of the Tuweihe Fault (Figure 6b,c), the Tuweihe Fault displays a pronounced “single peak” pattern, featuring a triangular drop profile with a linear gradient. The drop is characterized by being small at both ends and large in the middle. The coherence diagram and curve graph show that the Tuweihe Fault Zone can be divided into three segments, and the Tmax on the first and second segments is near the middle of the fault segment (Figure 6b,c). All of the above suggest that the Tuweihe Fault grows and interacts with neighboring faults through soft linkages from isolated fault segments, forming a long fault by hard linkages [3,20,39,50]. The throw of the Tuweihe Fault on the T5 seismic reflection interface has significantly decreased, and, although it is smaller than it is on the T9, the trends in curve changes are similar in response to the inheritance of strike–slip faults. The drop values from T11 show alternating positive and negative changes, indicating a shift in fault properties and verifying the presence of the “dolphin effect” in the Tuweihe strike–slip Fault within the Cambrian–Ordovician tectonic layer [51,52].
In both natural settings and models, the growth of fault connections typically involves a reduction in the number of faults and an increase in their scale [8]. Unlike Xiaohaotu-1, the Tuweihe Fault shows an increasing drop in the overlap zone, suggesting it has undergone three stages of evolution: an initial independent fault stage, the emergence of en echelon transfer faults at the fault tip, and ultimately, consolidation under right-lateral shear stress.

4.2.3. Taigemiao Fault Zone

The Taigemiao Fault is composed of small, intermittently developed faults (explanation of the fault on the coherence diagram is shown in Figure 7b,d). Influenced by pre-existing structures, the strata are prone to rupture along weak points under shear stress fields, resulting in a regularly distributed network of small fractures. The drop–distance map reveals that there are breakpoints in the fault (Figure 7c,e), dividing it into three clear sections from west to east. Moreover, there are significant differences in the fault length across different interfaces, accompanied by notable shifts in fault nature. Specifically, the T9 section presents as a negative flower structure with developed grabens and a negative vertical drop, transitioning to an en echelon normal fault with a positive drop at the T5 section, but with minimal differences in throw values. This suggests that the Taigemiao Fault underwent similar levels of transtensional stress during the Late Ordovician and the Early Triassic–Early Jurassic periods.

4.3. Fault Damage Zone on Seismic Data

As shown in Figure 5c, there are two peaks in damage zone width on the T9 interface of the Xiaohaotu-1 Fault Zone, with the peak occurring in the transition overlap zone between the northern and middle sections of it. An increase in the number of faults in the study area results in a wider damage zone than the main displacement zone; in addition, the flower structure results in a widening of the damage zone, attributed to the development of subsidiary faults. The trend in the width of the fault damage zone of the Tuweihe Fault Zone mirrors that of the throw, with the peak occurring in the middle section, which is wider than the northern and southern sections (Figure 6d). The planar distribution of the Taigemiao Fault Zone is narrow and elongated, with the width of the damage zone significantly influenced by branching fractures; however, in pure strike–slip faults, the width notably decreases. The peak width of the damage zone aligns with the peak throw of the Taigemiao Fault Zone (Figure 7a,c). Overall, the three strike–slip fault zones in the study area exhibit wider damage zones exceeding 2000 m, primarily distributed between 1000 m and 1500 m. Owing to the absence of statistics on fault ends and minor faults, some damage zones with widths less than 500 m were excluded from the statistical analysis. Data on damage zones wider than 3000 m is scarce. While there are occasional high values, most of the abnormally high values may be influenced by secondary faults. The more secondary faults there are, the larger the scale of the faults, and thus the wider the damage zone.

4.4. The Interrelationship Between Fault Elements

4.4.1. Relationship Between the Fault Damage Zone and Vertical Displacement

In this section, we discuss the relationship between the width of damage zone and vertical displacements (throws) of the three fault zones. Previous studies have shown that the relationship between the damage zone width and displacement is related to fault scale, diagenesis, and deformation mechanisms [38,53,54]. To ensure the reliability of our findings, we analyzed their data from the Ordovician Majiagou Formation top surface (T9) within the same layer for all three, ensuring consistency in fault type, lithology, and depth. Additionally, the value of the fault throw indicates the degree of strata deformation and the intensity of fault activity; therefore, we adopted the absolute value of the fault throw, as described in Section 4.2.
The scatter plots of damage zone width and throw show a clear positive correlation between the two (Figure 8a,c). Through linear regression analysis, the damage zone width and throw of the Taigemiao Fault Zone and Tuweihe Fault Zone exhibit a high correlation coefficient (Figure 8a,c), with R2 values of 0.71 and 0.66, respectively, indicating a good fit in the result. The relationship between fault throw and damage zone width demonstrates a positive linear correlation in the Taigemiao Fault and Tuweihe Fault (Figure 8a,c), consistent with most research conclusions [20]. Comparatively, the positive correlation between damage zone width and throw is more significant in the Taigemiao Fault Zone, with the data points concentrated and less divergent (Figure 8a). Most of the data points for the Xiaohaotu Fault are clustered near the trend line, but the linear fitting effect is poor due to the dispersion of individual points (Figure 8b). This may be attributed to the fact that the Xiaohaotu Fault is located in the superimposed zone and fault segments with secondary fault development, where the damage zone width is abnormally increased; however, in pure strike–slip segments, the throw is larger and the damage zone width is reduced, leading to a higher number of abnormal data points.
Globally, the damage zone width and displacement of faults exhibit a divergent distribution across 2–3 orders of magnitude [1,54,55,56]. The statistical results of the damage zone width and throw of strike–slip faults in the study area show that the ratio distribution ranges from 50 to 150, with the highest number between 50 and 75 (Figure 8d). The ratio of 50–100 accounts for 65% of the total sample, indicating that the distribution of the ratio of damage zone width/throw falls within a range of 1–2 orders of magnitude, mostly between 50 and 100 times (Figure 8d).

4.4.2. Power–Law Relationship and Confidence Interval Among Fault Elements

The aggregated scatter plot (Figure 9a) reveals that the data points exhibit distinct power–law characteristics, such as a high degree of right skewness and long tails. Consequently, this study employs a power function for model training and evaluation. It was found that the Allometric2 model and curve best fit the overall data characteristics, with convergent fitting results and an R2 of 0.68; moreover, the fitted model is statistically significant and effective at the 0.05 level. This indicates that the distribution patterns of the damage zone width and throw on the strike–slip fault zones in the Daniudi Block conform to a power–law relationship, which is consistent with the power–law relationship between fault displacement and width proposed by Torabi and Berg (2011) [1]. Furthermore, after taking the logarithm of the width–drop axis, the data exhibited a linear relationship, further corroborating the power–law relationship between the two. We opted for an unweighted linear simulation and set a 95% confidence interval, with the outcome of a correlation coefficient of 0.65. As shown in Figure 9b, the trend of damage zone width increasing with throw is evident in the prediction band, while the trend of damage zone width increasing with throw is slower within the confidence band. In total, 72% of the points fall within the confidence level, indicating a wide distribution range of data points. This may be due to fault interaction and overlapping of active segments [1], with faults in a state of mechanical interaction or secondary fault nucleation, and a small proportion of mature faults [3,48,57,58], resulting in immature development of damage zone width and throw.

5. Discussion

5.1. Development and Evolution Patterns of Strike–Slip Fault Zones

According to the above research findings and imaging-log data (Figure 3 and Figure 4), the strike–slip fault zone in the study area exhibits a typical “ternary structure,” consisting of a fault core, a damage zone, and a fracture zone. The profile and three-dimensional development model of the strike–slip fault zone developed within carbonate rocks are illustrated in Figure 10. The fault core is a strongly deformed shear zone, whereas the damage zone represents the lower-order structures on either side of the fault core, including secondary faults, cracks, deformation zones, and rock veins that intersect the surrounding rock, creating an abnormal permeability zone. In the study area, the permeability of the fractured zone is 1–6 orders of magnitude greater than that of the surrounding rock (Figure 4). Fracture zones constitute a significant component of fault internal structures [54], and play a pivotal role in oil and gas migration. Within the fault zone, the number of fractures gradually diminishes as the distance from the fault core increases (Figure 10). When the density aligns with the regional fracture density, it signifies the end of the fault zone. Based on the internal structural distribution of the fault zone, it can be categorized into symmetrical and asymmetrical types [59]. Figure 10 illustrates the idealized symmetrical pattern, whereas in nature, fault zones are typically asymmetrical. In this study, all three strike–slip fault zones in the Daniudi Block were found to be asymmetrical.
Based on our study, we speculate that the internal structural evolution of the strike–slip fault zones in the carbonate rocks of the study area undergoes the following three stages:
(1)
In the early stages of deformation, there is no fault core developed, or it is discontinuously developed. Small and dense fractures form at the deformation site, in the form of en echelon fault zones, with a narrow range of damage zones.
(2)
As the displacement increases, the width of the damage zone expands notably, and the originally discontinuous fault core gradually connects. The fault core is dominated by high-permeability fault breccia, surrounded by a damage zone. The density of fractures decreases away from the damage zone, which is the fracture zone. The fault undergoes shear fracturing, forming a typical ternary structure.
(3)
The fault zone further evolves, forming a strike–slip fault zone with a distinct ternary structure, namely a continuous fault core, a damage zone, and a fracture zone. The fault core develops fault breccia, fault gouge, or sliding surfaces, and lenses. The width of the damage zone and fracture zone increases slightly, and the range of fault zone modification of the reservoir is the largest (Figure 11).

5.2. The Process and Pattern of Segmented Linkage of Strike–Slip Faults

There are three stages for fault linkage: an isolated fault stage, a soft-linkage stage, and a hard-linkage stage [15,19,21]. The soft-linkage stage can be divided into two sub-stages: the stage of formation of breaching faults, and the stage of the breached relay ramp or curved lateral propagation [45,64]; fault linkage causes an uneven lengthening of faulting [65]. According to the d-x curve of the Tuweihe Fault and the regional tectonic evolution background, the fault growth and connection model is established. The model shows that the isolated fault segment grows and interacts with neighboring segments by soft linkage, and they are eventually hard-linked to form a longer fault (Figure 12) [3,20,39,50].
In the field and model, the connection growth of faults is always a process of decreasing the number of faults and increasing the scale of faults [8]. The length of the newly generated fault is less than the sum of the length of the segmented fault, and Dmax will increase with the evolution of the fault. It is commonly believed that the fault displacement is largest near the center, and the tail displacement is zero [3]. After the fault is connected into a large fault, because of material properties and tectonic settings [57], kinematic interactions in linkage faults [19], measurement errors [66], and other factors, there are significant differences in the displacement of each part [3], and Dmax is no longer located in the central part. As described in this paper, the Tuweihe Fault has experienced three stages in evolution: first was the independent fault stage; then, the oblique conversion fault was generated at the tip of the fault; and finally, the hard connection was carried out under dextral shear stress (Figure 12a). The statistical actual displacement–distance curve shows that (Figure 6b,c) there is Dmin at the segment fault connection, which is judged to be a contractional overstep. Therefore, the soft-connection part of the second stage of the model is represented by a concave curve (Figure 12b, Stage 2) [3,15,21], and the fault is declared to be right-lateral left-order. Due to the shear force at the fault tip, the tail ends are gradually connected as the fault grows. The middle of the Tuweihe Fault was uplifted by the compressive and torsional stress environment, and the stratum on the east side of the fault is higher than that on the west side. The displacement distribution after fault connection differs from that of isolated fault; the Dmax deviates from the center of the fault section [48]. What is more, the gradient of the d-x curve would change: when Dmax is closer to the overlap tip, the displacement gradient is steeper, and the gradient decreases away from the overlap tip (Figure 12b, Stage 3).
The model fully demonstrates the process and mechanism of the segmented connection of the en echelon Tuweihe Fault, which can be extended to other strike–slip faults in the study area. However, the pattern and mechanism of soft connection and the time of final connection into a fault need to be further explored.

6. Conclusions

(1)
Along-strike throw of the strike–slip fault zone in the Daniudi Block exhibits a characteristic pattern, being highest centrally and decreasing toward both tips, with minor variation in the location of the maximum value. The development of fault overlay zones and secondary faults significantly enlarges the width of fault damage zone.
(2)
A positive power–law correlation exists between fault throw and damage zone width. This relationship allows the damage zone width of strike–slip faults in the study area to be roughly predicted from throw data, enabling mutual verification between these two parameters in future work.
(3)
The Xiaohaotu and Tuweihe Fault Zones are each formed through the linkage of three initially independent fault segments. The Xiaohaotu Fault is currently transitioning from segment isolation to soft linkage, whereas the Tuweihe Fault has progressed to a fully integrated strike–slip system through hard linkage.

Author Contributions

J.L.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Project Administration, Methodology, Investigation, Formal Analysis, Data Curation, Conceptualization, Software, M.Y.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, Resources, Supervision, Project Administration, Funding Acquisition, Formal Analysis, Data Curation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by [the North China Oil and Gas Branch Company, Sinopec, Zhengzhou, Henan, China] grant number [34550008-21-ZC0609-0022].

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 2. (a) Imaging logs showing fault core and damage zones in strike–slip fault zones, segment from horizontal borehole DK13-FP6 on Xiaohaotu Fault Zone. (b) Conceptual diagram of seismic coherence value distribution in fault zones.
Figure 2. (a) Imaging logs showing fault core and damage zones in strike–slip fault zones, segment from horizontal borehole DK13-FP6 on Xiaohaotu Fault Zone. (b) Conceptual diagram of seismic coherence value distribution in fault zones.
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Figure 3. Seismic reflection profile showing stratigraphic dip—the error between the true throw and read throw: (a) Seismic section of Tuweihe Fault, showing a positive flower structure, and (a’) showing the positive throw reading from the time depth of seismic profile; due to the stratigraphic dip angle, it is unable to directly read the true throw. (b) Seismic section of Taigemiao Fault, showing a negative flower structure, and (b’) showing the negative throw reading from the time depth of seismic profile.
Figure 3. Seismic reflection profile showing stratigraphic dip—the error between the true throw and read throw: (a) Seismic section of Tuweihe Fault, showing a positive flower structure, and (a’) showing the positive throw reading from the time depth of seismic profile; due to the stratigraphic dip angle, it is unable to directly read the true throw. (b) Seismic section of Taigemiao Fault, showing a negative flower structure, and (b’) showing the negative throw reading from the time depth of seismic profile.
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Figure 4. The DK13-FP14 horizontal well intersected the Xiaohaotu Fault Zone at the 3527–3554 m imaging-log interval, revealing that the fault zone consists of a fault core, damage zone, and fracture zone, along with variations in porosity and permeability within the fault zone.
Figure 4. The DK13-FP14 horizontal well intersected the Xiaohaotu Fault Zone at the 3527–3554 m imaging-log interval, revealing that the fault zone consists of a fault core, damage zone, and fracture zone, along with variations in porosity and permeability within the fault zone.
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Figure 5. (a) Coherence slice section of Xiaohaotu Fault on the reflector T9 (location as shown in Figure 1c)—the lines in the imagery represent the locations where the displacement data was collected from the coherence slice on reflectors T9 and T11. (b) Xiaohaotu Fault throw–distance curves. (c) Bar chart of damage zone width on Xiaohaotu-1 Fault at T9 interface.
Figure 5. (a) Coherence slice section of Xiaohaotu Fault on the reflector T9 (location as shown in Figure 1c)—the lines in the imagery represent the locations where the displacement data was collected from the coherence slice on reflectors T9 and T11. (b) Xiaohaotu Fault throw–distance curves. (c) Bar chart of damage zone width on Xiaohaotu-1 Fault at T9 interface.
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Figure 6. (a) Coherence slice section of Tuweihe Fault on the reflector T9 (location as shown in Figure 1c)—the lines in the imagery represent the locations where the displacement data was collected from the coherence slice on reflectors T9 and T11. (b) Tuweihe Fault throw–distance curves at T5 and T9 interface. (c) Tuweihe Fault throw–distance curves at T11 interface. (d) Bar chart of damage zone width on Tuweihe Fault at T9 interface.
Figure 6. (a) Coherence slice section of Tuweihe Fault on the reflector T9 (location as shown in Figure 1c)—the lines in the imagery represent the locations where the displacement data was collected from the coherence slice on reflectors T9 and T11. (b) Tuweihe Fault throw–distance curves at T5 and T9 interface. (c) Tuweihe Fault throw–distance curves at T11 interface. (d) Bar chart of damage zone width on Tuweihe Fault at T9 interface.
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Figure 7. (a) Bar chart of damage zone width on Taigemiao Fault bar diagram at T9 interface. (b) Coherence slice section of Taigemiao Fault on the reflector T9 (location as shown in Figure 1c)—the imaginal lines represent the locations where the displacement data was collected from the coherence slice on reflector T9, and (c) Taigemiao Fault throw–distance curves. (d) Coherence slice section of Taigemiao Fault on the reflector T5, and (e) Taigemiao Fault throw–distance curves.
Figure 7. (a) Bar chart of damage zone width on Taigemiao Fault bar diagram at T9 interface. (b) Coherence slice section of Taigemiao Fault on the reflector T9 (location as shown in Figure 1c)—the imaginal lines represent the locations where the displacement data was collected from the coherence slice on reflector T9, and (c) Taigemiao Fault throw–distance curves. (d) Coherence slice section of Taigemiao Fault on the reflector T5, and (e) Taigemiao Fault throw–distance curves.
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Figure 8. (a) Scatter diagram of fault throws and damage zone width in Taigemiao Fault Zone. (b) Scatter diagram of fault throws and damage zone width in Xiaohaotu Fault Zone. (c) Scatter diagram of fault throws and damage zone width in Tuweihe Fault Zone. (d) Histogram displaying the distribution of the ratio of the fault damage zone width/throw.
Figure 8. (a) Scatter diagram of fault throws and damage zone width in Taigemiao Fault Zone. (b) Scatter diagram of fault throws and damage zone width in Xiaohaotu Fault Zone. (c) Scatter diagram of fault throws and damage zone width in Tuweihe Fault Zone. (d) Histogram displaying the distribution of the ratio of the fault damage zone width/throw.
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Figure 9. (a) Scatter plot of the damage zone width and throw of the strike–slip fault zone, along with the Allometric2 model fitting curve. (b) Linear fitting and confidence interval of the double logarithmic plot of the damage zone width and throw.
Figure 9. (a) Scatter plot of the damage zone width and throw of the strike–slip fault zone, along with the Allometric2 model fitting curve. (b) Linear fitting and confidence interval of the double logarithmic plot of the damage zone width and throw.
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Figure 10. Development model diagram of strike–slip fault zones in Ordovician carbonate rocks of the Daniudi area (modified from [60,61]).
Figure 10. Development model diagram of strike–slip fault zones in Ordovician carbonate rocks of the Daniudi area (modified from [60,61]).
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Figure 11. Evolutionary model of strike–slip fault zone in Ordovician carbonate rocks in Daniudi area (modified from [62,63]). (a) The initial stage of fault development. The width of the damage zone is relatively small. (b) The further evolution stage of the fault. The range of the damage zone has increased significantly, and the closer to the fault core, the greater the density of the fractures. (c) The final stage of fault evolution. The ternary structure of the strike–slip fault zone is formed.
Figure 11. Evolutionary model of strike–slip fault zone in Ordovician carbonate rocks in Daniudi area (modified from [62,63]). (a) The initial stage of fault development. The width of the damage zone is relatively small. (b) The further evolution stage of the fault. The range of the damage zone has increased significantly, and the closer to the fault core, the greater the density of the fractures. (c) The final stage of fault evolution. The ternary structure of the strike–slip fault zone is formed.
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Figure 12. A fault growth schematic diagram by segment linkage (modified after [21]) and interaction between segmented faults from Tuweihe Fault for three stages of growth: (a) Evolution model of Tuweihe Fault trace (modified after [2]). (b) Linkage and evolution of fault segments (modified after [15,20]).
Figure 12. A fault growth schematic diagram by segment linkage (modified after [21]) and interaction between segmented faults from Tuweihe Fault for three stages of growth: (a) Evolution model of Tuweihe Fault trace (modified after [2]). (b) Linkage and evolution of fault segments (modified after [15,20]).
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Li, J.; Yang, M. Relationship Between Fault Elements and the Structural Evolution of Strike–Slip Fault Zones: A Case Study from the Ordos Basin. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 12821. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312821

AMA Style

Li J, Yang M. Relationship Between Fault Elements and the Structural Evolution of Strike–Slip Fault Zones: A Case Study from the Ordos Basin. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(23):12821. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312821

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Li, Jingying, and Minghui Yang. 2025. "Relationship Between Fault Elements and the Structural Evolution of Strike–Slip Fault Zones: A Case Study from the Ordos Basin" Applied Sciences 15, no. 23: 12821. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312821

APA Style

Li, J., & Yang, M. (2025). Relationship Between Fault Elements and the Structural Evolution of Strike–Slip Fault Zones: A Case Study from the Ordos Basin. Applied Sciences, 15(23), 12821. https://doi.org/10.3390/app152312821

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