Sediment-Based Unfired Bricks Reinforced with Waste Flax Fibers: Implementation, Physical Aspects and Kinetics of Air Drying—Part I
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Fluvial Sediment
2.1.2. Flax Fiber
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Proctor Test Miniature
2.2.2. Mix Preparation
2.2.3. Brick Sample Compaction
2.2.4. Experimental Program
- -
- Control specimens, without fibers, are simply marked according to the water content (19, 22 and 25) followed by a dash and a letter for the series (A, B, C).
- -
- Specimens containing fibers are labelled according to the length, LF, of the fibers (LF = 2 cm, 3 cm or 4 cm), the fiber content, FC, (from 0.1% to 0.5%) and a letter for the batch (A, B or C). For example, a specimen containing 0.4% 2 cm fibers, being the second in a set of 3, will be referenced: 2-0.4B. Table 2 gives all the factors investigated, together with the unfired brick references.
3. Results
3.1. Analysis and Monitoring of the Drying Process of Sediment-Based Bricks
3.2. Air Drying of Sediment-Based Bricks
3.2.1. Sediment-Based Bricks with No Fibers
3.2.2. Sediment-Based Bricks with Random 2 cm Long Fibers
3.2.3. Sediment-Based Bricks with Random 3 cm Long Fibers
3.2.4. Sediment-Based Bricks with Random 4 cm Long Fibers
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of Initial Water Content on the Air Drying of Sediment-Based Bricks with No Fiber
4.2. Effect of Fiber Content and Length of Fibers on the Water Content During Air Drying of Randomly Fiber-Reinforced Samples
4.3. Effect of Fiber Content and Length of Fibers on the Linear Dimensions of Sediment-Based Bricks
- -
- The shrinkage increases with the length of the added fibers;
- -
- The shrinkage increases with the fiber content.
4.4. Effect of Fiber Content and Length of Fibers on the Density Evolution of Sediment-Based Bricks
4.5. Effect of Theoretical Water Content on the Density Evolution of Sediment-Based Bricks
5. Conclusions
- -
- In line with the practice of manufacturing unfired bricks, the sediment was characterized, based mainly on a granulometric analysis and the determination of plasticity limits (Atterberg limits). This characterization showed that this fluvial sediment, depending on the samples collected, met the main criteria, while sometimes being at the limit of certain charts. A lack of clay or even plasticity was noted.
- -
- In order to densify the sediment-based brick, a water content needs to be defined for the water–sediment–fiber mixes. This water content was deduced from the normal miniature Proctor test and corresponds to the optimum water content. It was possible to observe a certain variation in the optimum values on the so-called Proctor curves. This can be explained by the intrinsic variability of sediments in general and the small volume of sediments compacted. However, this miniature Proctor test requires a small mass of sediment, and therefore small volumes of sediment to be sampled, and the test is rapid. The value adopted was 22% for this sediment. Sediment-based bricks without fibers were manufactured with water contents of 19%, 22% and 25% for a preliminary study of air drying. The drying time was approximately 13 to 14 days for a moisture content of 22%.
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- The sediment-based bricks were compacted using equipment adapted to the 4 cm × 4 cm × 16 cm molds used for mortars, at an energy equivalent to that of the normal Proctor test (600 kN·m/m3). All the sediment-based bricks, whether fiber-reinforced or not, had approximately the same dry density of 1.27 g/cm3, corresponding roughly to the maximum density of the Proctor test minus 10%.
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- The addition of waste flax fiber reduces the drying time for dosages ranging from 0.1 wt% to 0.5 wt%. This reduction lasts 2 to 3 days and varies according to fiber length, but it stabilizes at around 0.4 wt%.
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- Shrinkage was observed in brick specimens. It remained low, at around 0.25% for a sediment-based brick without fibers, but tended to increase with fiber length reaching up to 1.25% for 4 cm fibers. No damage was observed.
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- The effect of the fiber content does not influence the final dry density of the sediment-based bricks, but there is a slight influence of the fiber length on the dry density.
- -
- The effect of the initial water content for all bricks produced does not affect the final dry density. This is important when defining the initial water content of sediment–water–fiber mixes. The recommended water content can be defined from the optimum water content obtained from the Proctor test, but a deviation of ±3 to 4% is allowable. Water content below the optimum value may be recommended to save water.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample | Rouen 1-R1 | Rouen 2-R2 | Rouen 3-R3-1 | Rouen 4-R3-2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clay < 2 µm (%) | 1.1 | 2.6 | 11.9 | 11.7 |
Silt 2 µm < % < 50 µm (%) | 32.3 | 42.3 | 71.9 | 72.1 |
Sand 50 µm < % < 2 mm (%) | 66.6 | 55.1 | 16.2 | 16.2 |
LL (%) | 41 | 36.8 | 37.9 | 37.9 |
PI (%) | 16 | 11.0 | 13 | 13 |
OMC (%) | 9.1 | 9.1 | 5.8 | 5.8 |
ρs (g/cm3) | 2.64 | 2.61 | 2.60 | 2.60 |
MDD (g/cm3) | 1.44 | 1.38 | 1.55 | 1.55 |
MMC (%) | 23.0 | 22.2 | 22.0 | 22.0 |
Parameters | Bricks with No Fibers | Bricks Reinforced with Short Flax Fibers |
---|---|---|
Water content W (%) | 19,22,25 | 22 |
Fiber length LF (cm) | - | 2, 3, 4 |
Fiber content FC (%) | 0 | 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 |
3 samples per set | A, B, C | A, B, C |
References | W19A,W19B,W19C W22A,W22B,W22C W25A,W25B,W25C | L2-0.1A, L2-0.1B, L2-0.1C; L2-0.2A, L2-0.2B, L2-0.2C; L2-0.3A, L2-0.3B, L2-0.3C; L2-0.4A, L2-0.4B, L2-0.4C; L2-0.5A, L2-0.5B, L2-0.5C; continued for L = 3 cm and 4 cm. |
Targeted Water Content (%) | Final Normalized Weight 1 (-) | Water Weight 1 (g) | Averaged Water Content 1 (%) |
---|---|---|---|
19 | 0.85 | 55.61 | 17.1 |
22 | 0.83 | 69.08 | 20.7 |
25 | 0.80 | 79.81 | 24.1 |
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Levacher, D.; Suriray, A.; Ndahirwa, D.; Zmamou, H.; Leblanc, N.; Shimpo, T. Sediment-Based Unfired Bricks Reinforced with Waste Flax Fibers: Implementation, Physical Aspects and Kinetics of Air Drying—Part I. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020909
Levacher D, Suriray A, Ndahirwa D, Zmamou H, Leblanc N, Shimpo T. Sediment-Based Unfired Bricks Reinforced with Waste Flax Fibers: Implementation, Physical Aspects and Kinetics of Air Drying—Part I. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(2):909. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020909
Chicago/Turabian StyleLevacher, Daniel, Alexandre Suriray, Désiré Ndahirwa, Hafida Zmamou, Nathalie Leblanc, and Tomoki Shimpo. 2025. "Sediment-Based Unfired Bricks Reinforced with Waste Flax Fibers: Implementation, Physical Aspects and Kinetics of Air Drying—Part I" Applied Sciences 15, no. 2: 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020909
APA StyleLevacher, D., Suriray, A., Ndahirwa, D., Zmamou, H., Leblanc, N., & Shimpo, T. (2025). Sediment-Based Unfired Bricks Reinforced with Waste Flax Fibers: Implementation, Physical Aspects and Kinetics of Air Drying—Part I. Applied Sciences, 15(2), 909. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020909