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Article

2005–2024 Time–Space Features of VT Seismicity at Stromboli: New Insights into the Volcano Plumbing System and Link to Effusive Eruptions

by
Salvatore Gambino
* and
Antonio Scaltrito
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Catania, Piazza Roma 2, 95123 Catania, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(16), 9182; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15169182
Submission received: 3 June 2025 / Revised: 10 July 2025 / Accepted: 18 August 2025 / Published: 21 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Earth Sciences)
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Abstract

Volcano-tectonic seismic events (VT) are quite rare at Stromboli, numbering about ten events per year and generally with low magnitude. Using a dataset of 98 events from the 2005–2024 period, we report an improved relocation of VT events here. Relocated earthquakes are mainly distributed on the island and in an area located SSW of Stromboli. These VT events are related to the activation of seismogenic structures by a stress increase related to magma ascent. The shallowest seismicity (4–5 km) is positioned under the Stromboli summit, with a high occurrence in 2006–2007 and in 2019–2024, suggesting a major recharge of the HP magma reservoir. The deepest VT seismicity affects a depth of 7–12 km located in the submerged edifice SSW of the summit and is attributable to the dynamics of the LP magma reservoir, which was more active in 2006–2014 and much less so in the successive years. The increase in the occurrence rate of VT shallow seismicity seems to precede the most significant Stromboli activities, such as the 2007 and 2024 lava effusions followed by paroxysms. For these episodes, VT seismicity would appear to indicate a recharging in the first 4–5 km during the months preceding them, thereby representing a medium–short-term warning signal.

1. Introduction

Stromboli is the easternmost island of the Aeolian Archipelago. It is characterized by continuous degassing, with intermittent explosive activity occurring at several craters located 750 m above sea level (a.s.l.) in the upper part of the Sciara del Fuoco (SdF) collapse depression.
It represents the subaerial termination, 920 m a.s.l. of a largely underwater NE–SW-elongated volcanic edifice with a diameter of about 15–16 km at 1500 m below sea level [1].
The subaerial geological history of Stromboli is divided into six distinct epochs, each characterized by a unique magma composition [1]: Paleostromboli I (∼85 kyr), Paleostromboli II (∼60 kyr), Paleostromboli III (∼35 kyr), Vancori (∼26 kyr), Neostromboli (∼13 kyr), and Recent (∼2.4 kyr). These periods were characterized by several edifice collapses, and the youngest generated the Sciara del Fuoco scar on the NW flank of the volcano (Figure 1) and hosts a significant volume of recent material, e.g., refs. [2,3,4].
The Aeolian Archipelago is defined by three main structural sectors (Figure 1): a western sector (Filicudi, Alicudi, and Salina), a central sector (Vulcano and Lipari), and an eastern sector (Stromboli and Panarea). Together with Panarea, Stromboli develops along a NE–SW regional extensional fault system positioned over the continental crust of the Calabrian Arc, e.g., refs. [5,6].
During the last 100 ka, Stromboli underwent a development of the NE–SW rift zone passing across the cone summit, and in the last 13 ka, the rift zone showed its volcanic activity just along the summital area and along the north-eastern flank, coherently with the possible elongation toward north-east of the magma chamber [7].
Applsci 15 09182 g001
Figure 1. Structural map of Aeolian Archipelago with related seismic network. Structural features are redrawn by [7,8].
Figure 1. Structural map of Aeolian Archipelago with related seismic network. Structural features are redrawn by [7,8].
Applsci 15 09182 g001
At Stromboli, petrological data have identified two zones of different magma accumulation at various depths:
(1)
A deep storage volume, refilled by Ca-basalts, which feeds the gas-rich, low-porphyritic (LP) magma, erupted during the paroxysms towards the surface, as inferred by petrology [9,10].
(2)
A shallow storage that is present in all the surface phenomena, including flank effusions, Strombolian activity, and non-eruptive events [11], with gas-poor, high-porphyritic (HP) magma [12,13].
Regular activity at Stromboli is occasionally interrupted by strong explosions called ‘major explosions’ affecting the summit area above 500 m a.s.l. Major explosions are recurring episodes; about 100 episodes took place between 2025 and 2023 [14] Greater episodes, namely ‘paroxysms’, erupt large volumes of materials with considerably high energy, also causing damage to the two villages, Stromboli and Ginostra, with about 550 residents that can reach 5000–10,000 during summer. Paroxysms form eruptive columns more than 1 km above the craters; the last episodes occurred on 5 April 2003, 15 March 2007, 3 July and 28 August 2019, 19 July 2020, and 11 July 2024 [14,15].
The past history indicates that in the 1959–2003 period, Stromboli underwent about 40 years without paroxysms. Over the last 22 years, there has been an intensification of violent (major and paroxysmal) explosions, suggesting that a new eruptive cycle similar to that of the 1880–1959 has begun [16].
In particular, the paroxysm at 14:45:45 UTC on 3 July 2019 was one of the most violent explosions to occur at the summit crater, causing one fatality and some injuries. This paroxysm also generated a several km high eruptive column whose partial collapse triggered a pyroclastic flow on SdF that reached the coast and extended about 1 km out to sea, e.g., ref. [17].
Effusive eruptions begin from summit craters or from vents opening up on the SdF. They may occur with a slow lava output or as larger-volume lava flows that spread from eruptive vents and fissures along the SdF down to the coast, also causing landslides and tsunamis. Lava effusions, with a duration of weeks–months, occurred on 27 February–2 April 2007, 7 August–2 November 2014, and 3–17 July 2024.
Three of the four paroxysms (2003, 2007, and 2024) took place during effusive activity from lateral fractures along the volcano’s flank. Some researchers therefore suggested that effusive eruptions represent a trigger for paroxysmal explosions through a decompression process of the volcano plumbing system, evidenced by a reduction in magma levels within the conduit [18,19,20]. Ripepe et al. (2017) [20] proposed that decompression rates > 10 Pa s−1 at Stromboli can potentially cause the ascent of portions of gas-rich, crystal-poor LP magma responsible for the paroxysmal explosions, as occurred during the 2003 and 2007 eruptions but not in 2014.
The most recent episode occurred on 3 July 2024, when the external portion of the summit cone collapsed, followed by a lava overflow. On July 4, new well-fed lava flows were produced by a vent at 700 a.s.l. m, in the north crater area, propagating along the SdF down to the sea and by a vent at 500 m a.s.l., which generated pyroclastic flows that reached the coast in a few seconds and spread for about 1 km out to sea [21]. On 11 July, at 12:08 UTC, a paroxysmal event occurred, producing a 5 km high eruptive column and pyroclastic density currents along the SdF.
Continuous seismic monitoring of Stromboli started in 1985 [22,23] and typical signals recorded are explosion-quakes (LP, VLP), volcanic tremors, and volcano-tectonic (VT) earthquakes, e.g., ref. [24].
VT events are not so frequent, and seismic activity was also modest in the past, according to the reports of historical earthquakes (from 1885) [22]. These authors also evidenced 172 earthquakes with Md > 1.4 in the 1985–1998 period on considering the seismic recordings at the Stromboli stations (11.5 events per year). The strongest (ML 2.9–3.7) events occurred on 3 October 1991, 17 February 1992, 7 November 1994, and 13 June 1999. These events were the first that could be located (4–5 km from the island and depth between 8 and 12 km).
In the 1999–2002 period, seismicity location detection in the Stromboli area was not possible due to the small number of stations, but the network was improved in 2003 with 12 broadband digital seismic stations [24].
In a previous paper, ref. [25] considered 42 VT located events taking place from 2005 to 2016 that were relocated, suggesting the presence of two seismogenic volumes at depths of 3.5–6 km beneath the volcanic edifice and 10–12 km depth south of Stromboli.
Here, we relocated a larger dataset comprising 98 VT events from 2005 to 2024 and discuss newly obtained evidence also related to volcanic activity recorded in 2024.
We note that VT events at Stromboli, despite their low rate of occurrence, seem to represent an important element both as an indicator of the plumbing system position as well as a signal preceding volcanic activity.

2. The Seismic Network

Stromboli has been continuously monitored for seismic activity since 1985 [23] with a 1 Hz, vertical component sensor (STR station) that was equipped with a three-component sensor in 1993. In the mid-1990s, two seismic stations (TF1 and PL1) were installed on the southern and western sides of the island (Figure 1). A significant improvement was made during the 2002–2003 eruptive crisis when the permanent network was developed by 12 broadband digital seismic stations installed by INGV–OV ([26], Figure 1). All these stations are equipped with Guralp CMG 40T (0.02–60 s period) broadband sensors, with a 50 Hz sampling rate. The signals, acquired using 24-bit A/D data loggers, are transmitted via UHF radio-modem to San Vincenzo centralization sites, and then via TCP/IP protocol, to the INGV monitoring centers of Catania and Naples.

3. Seismic Data

In the 2005–2024 period, we recognized about 160 events with a magnitude ML ≥ 0.3 detected by the seismic network that originated within a radius of 10 km around the summit of Stromboli.
The dataset used in this study [27,28] comprises 98 located events, recorded from 2005 to 2024, with a maximum magnitude ML of 3.3 (5 May 2006 h:20:49 UTC). The first 42 earthquakes recorded until 2016 were reported in [25], and have been integrated, with 56 events recorded between 2017 and 2024 (Table 1).
Locations (Figure 2) carried out for surveillance purposes were retrieved using the Hypoellipse code [29] and a 1D velocity crustal model [25] derived from [30,31]. The errors of the analytical locations are on average 1.0 km for horizontal (ERH) and vertical (ERZ), while for the azimuthal gap and root-mean-square travel-time residual (RMS), the mean errors are 200° and 0.10 s. Earthquake locations point to a seismicity in a depth range of 0–13 km; in particular, events located below Stromboli island are generally comprised in the first 6 km. The deeper earthquakes are mainly located in a volume located ca. 4–8 km south-west with respect to Stromboli’s summit area and generally at a depth of 8–12 km.
VT seismicity is characterized by P and S phases with clear onsets and a spectral content (Figure 3) with peak frequencies comprised between 6 and 12 Hz for the shallower and close to summit area events and slightly wider (7–15 Hz) for the deeper earthquakes.
Figure 4 shows the earthquake daily rate and cumulative seismic strain release obtained as the square root of the seismic energy (E) computed using the [32] relationship logE (Erg) = 9.9 + 1.9M − 0.024 M2.
The highest earthquake occurrence was during 2006–2007 and after 2019; the cumulative strain indicates that events with a higher magnitude occurred between 2006 and 2009, and successively, it shows a uniform trend, only interrupted by the energetic release of an ML = 2.9 event recorded on 25 May 2014 (Figure 4).

4. Earthquake Relocations

The relative location methods determine the positions of nearby earthquakes with respect to each other, thereby improving the standard locations. On volcanoes, the results of these analyses clarify the earthquake distribution and can reveal distinct but previously hidden features such as the response to pressurizing magma body, the intrusion of new dikes, or faulting, e.g., ref. [33].
With the aim of obtaining more precise hypocenter parameters, we used the double-difference location method [34] and the HypoDD Version 1.0 software [35] which is based on the fact that if the hypocentral separation between two earthquakes is small enough with respect to the event–station distance and the scale length of velocity heterogeneity, then the ray paths are similar along almost the entire length [36]. With this assumption, the differences in the travel times for two earthquakes recorded at the same station can be attributed to differences in their hypocentre spatial separation. In this way, errors generated from an inaccurately modeled velocity structure are minimized without the use of station corrections. This technique has been used in previous studies, e.g., ref. [37] that produced refined images of the earthquake sources.
During computation, HypoDD performs a reduction in the data as it groups the events into clusters of well-connected earthquakes and eliminates those considered outliers.
We started with an initial set of 98 events derived from the first selection, and our final data comprise 79 well-connected events. These events are related through a network of links that consists of 5814 P and 2211 S-wave phase pairs. The average number of links per event pair is 4, while the average offset between strongly linked events is about 2.68 km.
New locations show, on average, epicentral errors of 340 m and 270 m for focal depth. Figure 5 reports maps and sections of the seismicity retrieved using HypoDD that show a significantly reduced scatter in locations when compared to Figure 2.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

The volcano-tectonic seismicity rate at Stromboli is low; ref. [22] detected about 10–12 events per year with Md > 1.4 in the period 1985–1998 in an area within about a 15 km radius around Stromboli, while in 2006–2024, we detected ca. 8–9 events per year with ML ≥ 0.3 in an area of a 10 km radius.
VT seismicity is related to seismogenic structure activation by a stress increase in magma ascent processes and thus represents an indication of the position of the Stromboli plumbing system [25,26]. In the 2005–2016 period, seismic analyses considered 42 events [25], whereas here we report improved VT event locations by using a larger dataset (98 events) over a broader period (2005–2024) that has enabled highlighting some features (see Figure 6):
-
A shallower seismicity covers the first 4–5 km below Stromboli island, showing occurrence times mainly in 2006–2007 and in 2019–2024 (Figure 6), with a rather unique first event recorded on 3 July 2019 (n. 49 in Table 1) that took place only one minute before the paroxysm. Shallow seismicity indicates a source positioned under the Stromboli summit area, referable to the position of the HP magma reservoir. Its occurrence reflects changes in the stress field caused by LP magma ascent and mixing processes with HP ([38]; Figure 7).
-
A deeper VT seismicity involves a volume with a depth of 7–12 km (Figure 6) located in the submerged edifice ca. 5–6 km SSW with respect to Stromboli’s summit (Figure 5), referable to a position of the LP magma that was more active in the 2006–2014 period but much less in the successive years.
-
An intermediate seismicity (at depth of ca. 4.0–6.0 km b.s.l.,) showed an upward shifting of the sources toward north-east (Figure 7), suggesting, at these depths, the transfer of the plumbing system toward the actual Stromboli cone position.
Applsci 15 09182 g006
Figure 6. Time–depth plot for VT earthquakes at Stromboli for earthquakes recorded between 2005 and July 2024. Depths are referenced to sea level. The occurrence of effusive eruptions and paroxysms is reported. Red lines refer to paroxysms, and blue lines refer to effusive eruptions.
Figure 6. Time–depth plot for VT earthquakes at Stromboli for earthquakes recorded between 2005 and July 2024. Depths are referenced to sea level. The occurrence of effusive eruptions and paroxysms is reported. Red lines refer to paroxysms, and blue lines refer to effusive eruptions.
Applsci 15 09182 g006
Applsci 15 09182 g007
Figure 7. N-S schematic representation of the relocated VT seismicity distribution related to the vertically extended magmatic system feeding persistent activity at Stromboli volcano (redrawn from [38].
Figure 7. N-S schematic representation of the relocated VT seismicity distribution related to the vertically extended magmatic system feeding persistent activity at Stromboli volcano (redrawn from [38].
Applsci 15 09182 g007
These observations seem to fit well with the petrological data: in the 2003–2017 period [39], Stromboli activity showed a phase in which LP magma uprising was characterized by efficient procedures of mush cannibalization and disruption, in which ancient diopsidic antecrysts were remobilized and transported. Instead, [40] indicated a rejuvenated Stromboli plumbing system in 2019, where the LP crystal mush is pervaded by recharge magmas with low remobilization, promoting a direct connection between the deeper and shallow reservoirs. This may explain how we are observing an increase in the seismic response at HP depths (0–5 Km) and a decreased seismicity in deeper LP volume since 2019; this may be caused by an efficient connection between deeper and shallower reservoirs that reduce the stress release in the deep reservoir and increase it in the HP reservoir.
To conclude, the occurrence rate of shallow seismicity seems to be an effective warning of Stromboli eruptions. In particular, the increase in earthquakes during the months that preceded the 2007 and 2024 lava effusions manifested (Figure 6); the two episodes were followed by a paroxysmal explosion 1–2 weeks later.
The phenomenon appears less evident during the 2014 eruption, which was not followed by any paroxysm. Seismicity seems then to evidence a higher recharge in the first 4–5 km during the months before the 2007 and 2024 eruptions compared to 2014.
The monitoring of VT events at Stromboli has been overlooked in the past, probably due to the low rate of occurrence; instead, we concluded that it does represent an important element, namely a medium–short-term signal (months–weeks) preceding important activities such as effusive eruptions, followed by a paroxysmal explosion. Therefore, VT events at Stromboli deserve to be further analyzed and interpreted in view of future increases in their occurrence.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.G. and A.S.; Methodology, S.G. and A.S.; Validation, S.G.; Formal analysis, A.S.; Data curation, S.G. and A.S.; Writing—original draft, S.G. and A.S.; Writing—review & editing, S.G. and A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We are particularly indebted to the INGV technical staff of Naples and Catania who ensured the regular working of the seismic network.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 2. Epicentral map of the earthquakes performed for surveillance purposes. Black dots indicate earthquakes from 2005 to 2016, and red dots indicate earthquakes from 2017 to July 2024.
Figure 2. Epicentral map of the earthquakes performed for surveillance purposes. Black dots indicate earthquakes from 2005 to 2016, and red dots indicate earthquakes from 2017 to July 2024.
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Figure 3. Waveforms recorded at the IST3 station (see Figure 1); (a) location map, (b) short-time Fourier transform (STFT) related to VT event location (see Table 1).
Figure 3. Waveforms recorded at the IST3 station (see Figure 1); (a) location map, (b) short-time Fourier transform (STFT) related to VT event location (see Table 1).
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Figure 4. Earthquake daily rate and cumulative strain release of all VT events recorded since 2005 at the Stromboli volcano.
Figure 4. Earthquake daily rate and cumulative strain release of all VT events recorded since 2005 at the Stromboli volcano.
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Figure 5. Map and vertical cross-sections of the seismicity relocated using HypoDD. Black dots indicate 2005–2016 events, and red dots indicate the 2017–July 2024 ones.
Figure 5. Map and vertical cross-sections of the seismicity relocated using HypoDD. Black dots indicate 2005–2016 events, and red dots indicate the 2017–July 2024 ones.
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Table 1. List of the 2017–2024 VT events reporting magnitude and standard locations. The event N. 49 preceded the 3 July paroxysm that occurred at 14:45:45 UTC by only one minute.
Table 1. List of the 2017–2024 VT events reporting magnitude and standard locations. The event N. 49 preceded the 3 July paroxysm that occurred at 14:45:45 UTC by only one minute.
NTimeMLLatitude NLongitude EDepth (Km) b.s.l.
432017-03-13 03.020.738.79115.2144.7
442017-03-13 18.321.938.75615.1899.8
452018-01-26 17.051.438.79415.2201.3
462018-03-05 16.111.138.79515.2143.0
472018-10-31 15.272.438.77215.2377.4
482019-06-13 13.191.938.81915.2015.6
492019-07-03 14.441.438.78815.2202.0
502019-07-28 18.270.538.79215.2030.1
512019-11-12 03.111.938.78515.2222.5
522020-01-10 14.351.238.82215.25412.4
532020-02-14 22.421.438.79115.2150.3
542020-02-14 23.131.338.79015.2110.3
552020-03-24 00.411.138.80315.2132.4
562020-04-22 15.021.538.78815.2202.6
572021-03-20 13.391.038.79015.2021.9
582021-03-22 14.380.938.79615.1993.7
592021-05-17 23.480.838.79315.2120.6
602021-08-17 22.390.938.79415.2160.2
612021-10-31 20.500.938.79415.2111.3
622021-10-31 20.542.538.79115.2130.7
632021-11-12 16.401.138.78915.2223.2
642021-11-22 06.390.838.80015.2080.1
652022-04-25 08.340.638.81515.2120.4
662022-04-25 08.360.538.81415.1880.1
672022-04-25 08.480.538.81815.2040.2
682022-07-03 00.561.438.84915.1743.4
692022-10-04 05.421.038.80715.2089.4
702022-10-04 11.511.338.80715.2238.4
712022-10-04 16.341.038.81215.2168.0
722022-10-04 22.241.138.81815.2187.3
732022-10-05 03.310.738.79715.2143.6
742022-11-02 03.331.138.83215.2168.0
752022-11-16 02.101.038.79115.2143.8
762022-12-05 06.591.238.79515.2121.0
772023-06-04 18.400.638.80315.1883.2
782023-06-19 05.370.738.81015.2142.7
792023-07-22 06.290.638.79015.2091.6
802023-07-24 09.250.938.79115.2163.0
812023-07-24 09.411.238.79015.2172.9
822023-07-24 09.421.338.79015.2143.4
832023-07-24 10.030.638.79615.2142.7
842023-10-03 01.471.238.79315.2123.2
852024-03-11 21.370.938.78215.1764.5
862024-04-30 18.541.338.77415.2060.1
872024-05-02 12.361.138.77615.2044.1
882024-05-26 19.381.038.78115.2102.8
892024-05-26 19.390.538.79615.2052.4
902024-05-26 19.461.538.78215.2123.1
912024-05-26 20.571.138.78615.2103.4
922024-06-04 05.500.538.79515.2220.1
932024-06-21 06.591.538.79215.2132.0
942024-06-21 06.591.138.79115.2142.0
952024-06-30 08.570.638.79115.2140.8
962024-07-02 18.161.638.78715.2131.8
972024-07-03 04.040.538.79415.2121.3
982024-07-04 12.160.938.78715.2151.9
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Gambino, S.; Scaltrito, A. 2005–2024 Time–Space Features of VT Seismicity at Stromboli: New Insights into the Volcano Plumbing System and Link to Effusive Eruptions. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 9182. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15169182

AMA Style

Gambino S, Scaltrito A. 2005–2024 Time–Space Features of VT Seismicity at Stromboli: New Insights into the Volcano Plumbing System and Link to Effusive Eruptions. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(16):9182. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15169182

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gambino, Salvatore, and Antonio Scaltrito. 2025. "2005–2024 Time–Space Features of VT Seismicity at Stromboli: New Insights into the Volcano Plumbing System and Link to Effusive Eruptions" Applied Sciences 15, no. 16: 9182. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15169182

APA Style

Gambino, S., & Scaltrito, A. (2025). 2005–2024 Time–Space Features of VT Seismicity at Stromboli: New Insights into the Volcano Plumbing System and Link to Effusive Eruptions. Applied Sciences, 15(16), 9182. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15169182

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