Impact of Kitchen Natural Gas Use on Indoor NO2 Levels and Human Health: A Case Study in Two European Cities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Ref. | Location | Environment | Fuels | NO2 Concentration | Exposure Period | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indoors | Outdoors | |||||
[22] | Adelaide | Urban and Suburban (193) | NG | 33.28 ± 3.76 g·m−3 | - | - |
Without NG | 15.61 ± 4.70 g·m−3 | |||||
[15] | Wuhan, China | Urban | NG | Winter: | 30 min | |
167.0 ± 215.1 g·m−3 | 31.5 ± 23.0 g·m−3 | |||||
Without ventilation: | ||||||
294.5 ± 372.0 g·m−3 | - | |||||
With ventilation: | ||||||
97.9 ± 57.1 g·m−3 | - | |||||
Electric | Winter: | |||||
32.9 ± 15.1 g·m−3 | 29.0 ± 20.0 g·m−3 | |||||
Without ventilation: | ||||||
28.7 ± 11.6 g·m−3 | - | |||||
With ventilation: | ||||||
38.9 ± 17.8 g·m−3 | - | |||||
[20] | 6 Chinese cities | Summer: | ||||
(different climatic areas) | Urban | NG (6) | 20 ± 0 g·m−3 | 75 g·m−3 | 3 h | |
Coal gas (20) | 100 ± 80 g·m−3 | |||||
[11] | Tanzania | Rural | Biomass | 59.80 ± 66.19 g·m−3 | 12.79 ± 23.88 g·m−3 | 24 h |
(48) | (18) | |||||
[12] | Pakistan | Urban (3) Rural (3) | NG, LPG | 0 g·m−3 | - | 24 h |
Biomass | 14,200 g·m−3 | |||||
Animal dung | 20,300 g·m−3 | |||||
[13] | Ethiopia | Biomass | - | 24 h | ||
Rural (17,215) | 97 ± 91.41 g·m−3 | - | ||||
RuralHighland (9500) | 116 ± 101 g·m−3 | - | ||||
RuralLowland (8015) | 176 ± 74 g·m−3 | - | ||||
[23] | Netherlands | - | NG (49) | 26.59 ± 2.04 g·m−3 | - | 48 h |
Electric (19) | 22.41 ± 2.48 g·m−3 | |||||
[16] | London | Suburban (4) | NG | 135.96 g·m−3 | - | 96 h |
Electric | 17.86 g·m−3 | |||||
[24] | California | - | NG (343) | Cold seasons: | ||
31.78 ± 4.33 g·m−3 | 27.23 ± 3.39 g·m−3 | 6 days |
Ref. | Location | Environment | Fuels | NO2 Concentration | Exposure Period | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indoors | Outdoors | |||||
[14] | Pakistan | Urban | NG | Winter (16): | 1 week | |
218 ± 12 g·m−3 | 64 g·m−3 | |||||
Summer (30): | ||||||
234 ± 196 g·m−3 | 138 g·m−3 | |||||
Rural | NG | Winter (20): | ||||
242 ± 57 g·m−3 | 22 g·m−3 | |||||
Summer (16): | ||||||
81 ± 65 g·m−3 | 26 g·m−3 | |||||
Rural | Biomass | Winter (20): | ||||
256 ± 40 g·m−3 | 22 g·m−3 | |||||
Summer (24): | ||||||
51 ± 27 g·m−3 | 40 g·m−3 | |||||
[17] | Hertfordshire (UK) | Urban | Gas | Winter: | 1 week | |
38.74 ± 12.98 g·m−3 | - | |||||
- Non-smokers: | - | |||||
18.9 g·m−3 | - | |||||
- Passive smokers: | - | |||||
21.7 g·m−3 | - | |||||
- Smokers: | - | |||||
24.8 g·m−3 | - | |||||
Summer: | ||||||
26.70 ± 2.45 g·m−3 | - | |||||
- Non-smokers: | - | |||||
14.0 g·m−3 | - | |||||
- Passive smokers: | - | |||||
14.0 g·m−3 | - | |||||
- Smokers: | - | |||||
16.2 g·m−3 | - | |||||
Electric | Winter: | |||||
13.35 ± 5.27 g·m−3 | - | |||||
Summer: | ||||||
20.69 ± 3.20 g·m−3 | - | |||||
[10] | Taiwan | Winter: | ||||
Rural (11) | NG (5), LPG (4) | 64.69 ± 17.11 g·m−3 | 75.41 ± 18.05 g·m−3 | 1 week | ||
Urban (12) | LPG | 46.01 ± 12.41 g·m−3 | 44.19 ± 11.85 g·m−3 | |||
[28] | Hong Kong | Urban (12) | Town gas | Summer: | 1 week | |
61.0 ± 22.4 g·m−3 | 71.8 ± 15.1 g·m−3 | |||||
[18] | Netherlands | NG, Electricity (5%) | Winter: | 1 week | ||
Urban (299)Rural (149) Rural (164) | 96 ± 59 g·m−3 64 ± 50 g·m−3 75 ± 62 g·m−3 | 62 ± 12 g·m−3 35 ± 19 g·m−3 22 ± 9 g·m−3 | ||||
Urban | Unvented geiser (181): | |||||
120 ± 55 g·m−3 | ||||||
Vented geiser (48): | ||||||
71 ± 53 g·m−3 | ||||||
No geiser (44): | ||||||
49 ± 30 g·m−3 | ||||||
Rural | Unvented geiser (181): | |||||
143 ± 60 g·m−3 | ||||||
Vented geiser (105): | ||||||
60 ± 38 g·m−3 | ||||||
No geiser (34): | ||||||
32 ± 24 g·m−3 | ||||||
[19] | Portage | Rural | NG (I:237, O:240) | 65.5 ± 30.7 g·m−3 | 15.8 ± 6.3 g·m−3 | 1-week |
LPG (I:568, O: 555) | 65.6 ± 38.4 g·m−3 | 11.8 ± 5.6 g·m−3 | ||||
Electric (I:174, O:173) | 8.4 ± 4.7 g·m−3 | 12.8 ± 5.6 g·m−3 | ||||
[35] | Boston | Urban | Gas | Heating season (57): | 2-weeks | |
94 ± 36 g·m−3 | 39 ± 11 g·m−3 | |||||
Non heating season (43): | ||||||
62 ± 34 g·m−3 | 32 ± 13 g·m−3 | |||||
Total (100): | ||||||
81 ± 38 g·m−3 | 36 ± 12 g·m−3 |
2. Nitrogen Dioxide Air Quality Standards
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Site Selection
3.2. General Sampling Scheme
3.3. Data Analysis
3.4. Exposure Estimate
4. Results and Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authority, Ref. | I / O a | Year to Be Met | Max. 15 min Average | Max. 1 h Average | Max. 24 h Average | Annual Concentration |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WHO [45] | Both | 1992 | - | 400 | 150 | - |
WHO [46] | Both | 2000 | - | 200 | - | 40 |
WHO [39] | Both | 2021 | - | 200 | 25 | 10 |
China [47] | I | 2022 | - | 200 | - | - |
Canada b [48] | I | 2015 | - | 170 | - | 20 |
Canada b [48] | I | 1987 | - | 480 | - | 100 |
Australia [42] | O | 2021 | - | 182 | - | 38.5 |
Australia [43] | O | 2025 | - | 150 | - | 28.2 |
EU [41] | O | 2010 | - | 200 (18) | - | 40 |
Norway [44] | O | 2013 | 300 | 100 | - | 30 |
US EPA [49] | O | 1971 | - | - | - | 100 |
US EPA [49] | O | 2010 | - | 188 | - | - |
South Africa [50] | O | 2002 | - | 200 (88) | - | 40 (0) |
ID | City | House Characteristics | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | Typology a | Total n.° of Inhab. |
Cooking Fuel | ||
(n.º of Children b) | |||||
P1 | Aveiro | House | T5 | 3 (0) | NG |
P2 | Aveiro | Flat (2nd floor) | T4 | 4 (0) | NG |
P3 | Aveiro | Flat (3rd floor) | T3 | 3 (0) | NG |
P4 | Aveiro | Flat (5th floor) | T3 | 4 (0) | NG |
P5 | Aveiro | Flat (2nd floor) | T3 | 4 (0) | NG |
P6 | Aveiro | Flat (G floor) | T2 | 3 (0) | NG |
P7 | Aveiro | Flat (1st floor) | T3 | 2 (0) | NG |
P8 | Aveiro | Flat (3rd floor) | T3 | 2 (0) | NG |
P9 | Aveiro | Flat (2nd floor) | T4 | 2 (0) | NG |
P10 | Porto | House | T4 | 3 (0) | Electric |
P11 | Porto | House | T4 | 3 (0) | Electric |
P12 | Porto | Flat (3rd floor) | T4 | 5 (0) | Electric |
P13 | Porto | Flat (1st floor) | T4 | 4 (0) | Electric |
P14 | Porto | Flat (2nd floor) | T3 | 4 (0) | Electric |
P15 | Porto | Flat (5th floor) | T4 | 3 (0) | Electric |
P16 | Porto | Flat (9th floor) | T4 | 4 (0) | Electric |
P17 | Porto | Flat (4th floor) | T3 | 4 (0) | Electric |
P18 | Porto | Flat (2nd floor) | T3 | 4 (2) | Electric |
Indoors | Outdoors | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
City/Fuel Type | N | Min. | Max. | Avg. ± SEM | Min. | Max. | Avg. ± SEM | I/O |
Fuel type | ||||||||
- NG (Aveiro) | 9 | 23.8 | 59.9 | 38.6 ± 11.3 | 13.8 | 29.6 | 20.4 ± 5.3 | 1.90 |
- Electricity (Porto) | 9 | 10.8 | 26.1 | 16.7 ± 5.5 | 23.1 | 34.2 | 28.8 ± 3.6 | 0.58 |
House typology (flats) | ||||||||
- NG (Aveiro) | ||||||||
- T2 | 1 | - | - | 30.0 | - | - | 17.7 | 1.69 |
- T3 | 5 | 29.2 | 46.5 | 38.4 ± 8.0 | 17.1 | 29.6 | 23.2 ± 6.1 | 1.64 |
- T4 | 2 | 43.8 | 59.9 | 51.9 ± 11.4 | 13.8 | 10.8 | 16.8 ± 4.2 | 3.09 |
- Electricity (Porto) | ||||||||
- T3 | 3 | 13.4 | 23.8 | 18.0 ± 5.3 | 28.1 | 31.0 | 29.7 ± 1.5 | 0.61 |
- T4 | 4 | 10.8 | 26.1 | 17.6 ± 7.8 | 23.1 | 34.2 | 29.5 ± 5.0 | 0.60 |
House type (flats) | ||||||||
- NG (Aveiro) | ||||||||
- 1st floor | 1 | - | - | 46.5 | - | - | 29.6 | 1.57 |
- 2nd floor | 3 | 43.8 | 59.9 | 49.8 + 8.8 | 13.8 | 28.8 | 20.8 ± 7.5 | 2.39 |
- 3rd floor | 2 | 29.2 | 31.1 | 30.2 + 1.3 | 17.1 | 23.3 | 20.2 ± 4.4 | 1.49 |
- 5th floor | 1 | - | - | 37.8 | - | - | 17.1 | 2.21 |
- Electricity (Porto) | ||||||||
- 1st floor | 1 | - | - | 10.8 | - | - | 23.1 | 0.47 |
- 2nd floor | 2 | 16.7 | 23.8 | 20.3 ± 5.0 | 28.1 | 29.9 | 29.0 | 0.70 |
- 3rd floor | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 34.2 | - |
- 4th floor | 1 | - | - | 13.4 | - | - | 31.0 | 0.43 |
- 5th floor | 1 | - | - | 26.1 | - | - | 32.7 | 0.80 |
- 9th floor | 1 | - | - | 16.0 | - | - | 28.0 | 0.57 |
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Barros, N.; Fontes, T. Impact of Kitchen Natural Gas Use on Indoor NO2 Levels and Human Health: A Case Study in Two European Cities. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 8461. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188461
Barros N, Fontes T. Impact of Kitchen Natural Gas Use on Indoor NO2 Levels and Human Health: A Case Study in Two European Cities. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(18):8461. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188461
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarros, Nelson, and Tânia Fontes. 2024. "Impact of Kitchen Natural Gas Use on Indoor NO2 Levels and Human Health: A Case Study in Two European Cities" Applied Sciences 14, no. 18: 8461. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188461
APA StyleBarros, N., & Fontes, T. (2024). Impact of Kitchen Natural Gas Use on Indoor NO2 Levels and Human Health: A Case Study in Two European Cities. Applied Sciences, 14(18), 8461. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188461