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Article

Sedimentary Characteristics and Evolution of the Late Miocene to Quaternary Tributary Channels in the Head of Bounty Channel, New Zealand

by
Xinlan Deng
1,
Ke Huang
1,2,* and
Xiang Li
1
1
State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
2
Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, Guangzhou 511458, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(14), 6160; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146160
Submission received: 26 April 2024 / Revised: 6 July 2024 / Accepted: 12 July 2024 / Published: 15 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Science and Engineering)
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Abstract

:
The Bounty Channel is a large-scale submarine channel system located in the eastern continental margin of New Zealand. Extending along the axis of the Bounty Trough, the channel system comprises three main tributaries (C1–C3) at its head, which merge downstream into a trunk channel leading to a terminal submarine fan. In this study, we use high-quality two-dimensional multichannel seismic data to investigate the formation and evolution of tributary channels C1 and C2. Four types of seismic facies are identified in the tributary channels: fill-type, mounded divergent, wavy, and subparallel facies. These seismic facies are correspondingly interpreted as topographic depression or channel fills, levees, sediment waves, and hemipelagic deposits. The Late Miocene tributary channels were developed above a pre-existing NE–SW-oriented depression. The Pliocene to Quaternary tributary channels are characterized by preferential development of higher levees on their left hand, and the presence of sediment waves on the lower levees of their right-hand, signaling an effect of the Coriolis force. The formation and evolution of the tributaries are primarily linked to regional tectonics, including increased convergence rate between the Pacific and Australian plates along the Alpine Fault in the Late Miocene and enhanced uplift and erosion at the Southern Alps during the Pliocene.

1. Introduction

Submarine channels are major conduits for terrigenous sediments to enter the deep sea [1]. Coarser-grained deposits filled in the channels can form high-quality petroleum and gas hydrate reservoirs [2]. Therefore, research on the sedimentary characteristics and evolution processes of submarine channels holds great significance for enhancing our understanding of the regional geological evolution of the host continental margin and guiding hydrocarbon exploration [3,4,5,6].
The Bounty Channel, located in the eastern continental margin of New Zealand’s South Island, comprises one of the world’s longest submarine channel systems (Figure 1A). The channel system begins at a water depth of ~250 m on the shelf edge and extends eastward to the Bounty Trough at ~5200 m water depth. The total length of the channel system is approximately 1200 km. It traverses the axis of Bounty Trough, serving as a conduit for terrigenous sediments transported from South Island to the Southwest Pacific abyssal plain (Figure 1A) [7,8]. Therefore, the Bounty Channel should witness the tectonic and sedimentary evolution processes of South Island and the adjacent continental margin. This channel system consists of three main tributaries (named C1–C3) at its head, which merge downstream before confluence into a trunk channel. The latter leads to a terminal submarine fan, i.e., the Bounty Fan (Figure 1) [9,10]. Previous studies have presented a preliminary description of the morphology and sedimentary characteristics of the trunk channel and the terminal fan [7,8,9,11,12], but less attention has been paid to the tributaries at the head of the channel system. In this study, we used high-quality two-dimensional multichannel seismic data to investigate the sedimentary characteristics and evolution processes of two of the three tributaries (C1 and C2) of the Bounty Channel and to explore the controlling factors.

2. Geological Setting

The Bounty Trough is situated on the eastern continental margin of New Zealand’s South Island. It is a late Cretaceous failed rift bounded by the Chatham Rise to the north, the Southwest Pacific Ocean to the east, and the Campbell Plateau to the south (Figure 1A) [7,8,9]. Developed along the axis of the Bounty Trough, the Bounty Channel is a primary conduit for terrigenous sediments transported from South Island into the Southwest Pacific Ocean, ultimately contributing to the development of a terminal submarine fan, i.e., the Bounty Fan (Figure 1A) [9,11,14].
The formation of the Bounty Trough is linked to the separation of the New Zealand plateau from Gondwana during the late Cretaceous (~112 Ma) [10,11,15]. The geodynamic evolution of the Bounty Trough can be categorized into the syn-rift, post-rift, and syn-orogenic stages (Figure 2) [16,17,18,19], which were related to the changes in the regional stress field and relative motion between the Pacific, Australian, and Antarctic plates. During the syn-rift stage (112–82 Ma), the Bounty Trough experienced horizontal extension, leading to the formation of NE–SW-oriented horst and graben structures in the trough. Throughout the post-rift stage (82–30 Ma), the trough underwent processes such as differential subsidence, compaction, tilting, and gravitational instabilities. During the final stage of trough formation, syn-orogenic tectonics processes (30 Ma to Recent) led to selective compressional inversion of inherited pre-existing normal faults, and the mild deformation of sediments up to the early Late Miocene age throughout the Bounty Trough, as well as the uplift of the Southern Alps, as a result of the convergence across the Alpine Fault, the plate boundary between the Pacific and Australian plates [20,21,22,23]. Correspondingly, the sedimentary sequence within the Bounty Trough contains a Cretaceous syn-rift sequence of lacustrine, alluvial, and fluvial deposits, overlain by the latest Cretaceous to Eocene post-rift sequence of shallow marine sediments, topped by Oligocene to Recent syn-orogenic sequence of deepwater clastic sediments [18,24,25].
The study area is located in water depths of ~1200–1300 m at the head of the Bounty Trough, covering tributary channels C1 and C2 of the Bounty Channel (Figure 1B). This study focuses on the Upper Miocene to Recent interval in the syn-orogenic phase (Figure 2), which witnessed the formation and evolution of the tributaries.
The modern oceanic currents are present off southeast New Zealand, which from shelf to slope are, respectively: (i) the northward-flowing Southland Current, influences the modern margin to a depth of ~800 m [26,27,28]; (ii) the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) is between ~800 and 1300 m [14,29]; and (iii) the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) to flow northward at depths between ~2000 and ~5000 m [14,30]. Among the currents, the AAIW flows through the tributary channels C1 and C2 from south to north (Figure 1A).

3. Data and Methods

Two-dimensional multichannel seismic data were accessible, which were collected by Shell New Zealand Limited in 2014. The seismic data were acquired using an array of tuned air guns with a total volume of 4320 cubic inches, and a 7950 m long, 636-channel streamer with hydrophones spacing of 12.5 m. The seismic data, processed by post-stack time migration, have a sampling interval of 4 ms and a line spacing of 2 km × 4 km, and cover an area of approximately 6400 km2 (Figure 1B). The dominant frequency for the interested channel-developed interval is about 35 Hz, resulting in a vertical resolution of ~13 m. This is based on an average interval velocity of ~1850 m/s as determined from sonic logging data of nearby petroleum exploration wells of Galleon-1 and Caravel-1 (Figure 1B) [31,32].
For our seismic data analysis, we adopted the classical seismic stratigraphic method [33,34]. First, seismic sequence boundaries were defined by examining systematic seismic reflection terminations such as onlap, downlap, and truncation, to establish the seismic sequence stratigraphic framework [34]. The ages of the seismic sequence boundaries were established by correlating with the dated regional stratigraphic classification (Figure 2) [17,18,35,36]. Isochron maps of each seismic sequence were used to analyze the plan-view distribution characteristics of each sequence stratum. Second, seismic facies were identified based on seismic reflection parameters, such as amplitude, continuity, configuration, and external forms [33]. Since there was no calibration available from drilling data, the geological interpretation of the seismic facies was achieved through literature examples of similar seismic facies and constraints from the regional geological setting. Third, the plan-view distribution characteristics of the channels and related depositional elements on each seismic sequence were mapped by analyzing seismic facies profile by profile. Finally, we integrated seismic sequence and seismic facies interpretations to infer the sedimentary evolution processes and controlling factors of the tributary channels system.

4. Results

4.1. Seismic Sequence Analysis

Based on seismic sequence interpretation, seven seismic sequence boundaries, including the seafloor, were identified in the channel-developed interval, which from bottom to top are named as SB1 to SB7, respectively corresponding to N40, N45, N50, N60, N70, N80, and seabed (Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4) [15,21,35,37]. These sequence boundaries subdivide the interval into six seismic sequences, called sequences S1–S6 from bottom to top (Figure 2 and Figure 3). According to previous regional stratigraphic classification [35], the sequence boundary N40 (base of sequence S1) is linked to the Kaikoura Orogeny, which occurred at approximately 11–10 Ma, making the base of the Late Miocene. The sequence boundary N60 (base of sequence S4) resulted from enhanced uplift and erosion in the Southern Alps at ~5 Ma [9,11,14], thus marking the base of the Pliocene. The sequence boundary N80 (base of sequence S6) corresponds to the onset of Quaternary global glacial/interglacial climatic cycles and the development of an icecap along the alpine region of South Island (about 2.5 Ma) [9,10], thus marking the base of the Quaternary. Therefore, sequences S1–S3 are tentatively identified as the Upper Miocene, sequences S4–S5 as the Pliocene, and sequence S6 as the Quaternary.
Sequence S1 mainly consists of low-to-moderate amplitude and moderate-to-high-continuity reflections, showing divergent and complex fill configurations (Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5A–D). The sequence is overall thinned from east to west (Figure 6A). The depositional center, located in the east of the study area, is NE–SW-oriented, with a thickness ranging from 200 to 400 ms two-way travel time (TWT) (Figure 6A). Two topographic highs are developed in the central and eastern portions of the depositional center, where the strata become thin (Figure 4D). Furthermore, two small depositional centers with thicknesses ranging from 100 to 200 ms TWT are distributed at the northern and southeastern portions of the study area (Figure 6A). Their strata are characterized by a wedge-shaped divergent configuration with low-to-moderate amplitude and high-continuity reflections (Figure 4).
Sequence S2 is composed of reflections of low-to-moderate amplitude and moderate-to-high continuity, with local areas containing concave-upward reflections that exhibit a complex fill configuration (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Similar to sequence S1, this sequence displays a larger thickness in the east than in the west (Figure 6B). However, the depositional center shifts westward, with the largest thickness ranging from 160 to 250 ms TWT in the central portion of the study area (Figure 6B). A small depositional center with a thickness of 60 to 120 ms TWT is located in the north of the study area, with thickness gradually thinning southwestward (Figure 6B).
Sequence S3 consists of low-to-moderate amplitude, high-continuity, and low-frequency reflections, normally showing divergent fill structures (Figure 3 and Figure 4). In comparison to sequences S1 and S2, the sedimentary center of this sequence further shifted westward (Figure 6C). Three belted depositional centers are located in the center of the study area, with thicknesses ranging from 60 to 160 ms TWT. There is another small depositional center in the north of the study area (Figure 6C), which is 40–90 ms TWT in thickness. Its strata are characterized by low-to-moderate amplitude and high-continuity reflections of a wedge-shaped divergent configuration.
Sequence S4 is primarily characterized by low-to-moderate amplitude and high-continuity reflections (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Different from sequences S1–S3, the main depositional center of this sequence is distributed in the west of the study area (Figure 6D). The strata exhibit moderate-to-high amplitude and high-continuity reflections of a wedge-shaped divergent configuration, with a thickness ranging from 60 to 110 ms TWT (Figure 4B and Figure 6D). The eastern and southern areas show a relatively small thickness ranging from 0 to 40 ms TWT (Figure 6D) and exhibit wedge-shaped divergent and subparallel reflections.
Similar to sequence S4, sequence S5 consists of low-to-moderate amplitude and high-continuity reflections (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The seismic reflection amplitude of the strata in the east is significantly weaker than that in the west (Figure 6E). The depositional centers of this sequence are located in the west and south of the study area, with thicknesses ranging from 50 to 140 ms TWT (Figure 6E). These strata are characterized by mounded divergent reflections of moderate-to-high amplitude and high continuity (Figure 4B). A minor depositional center, with a thickness ranging from 50 to 150 ms TWT, is distributed in the north of the study area (Figure 6E), in which wavy reflections with low-to-moderate amplitude and high continuity are observed.
Sequence S6 mainly consists of moderate-to-high amplitude and high-continuity reflections (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The depositional center is a NE–SW-oriented belt located in the south of the study area. In the depositional center, stratal thickness varies between 50 and 85 ms TWT (Figure 6F), and the reflections are high amplitude and high continuity with a mounded divergent configuration (Figure 4B). Two minor depositional centers, with thicknesses ranging from 50 to 140 ms TWT, are distributed in the north of the study area (Figure 6F), where high-continuity mounded divergent and wavy reflections are developed (Figure 5G–H).

4.2. Seismic Facies Analysis

Four types of seismic facies are identified: (A) fill-type, (B) mounded divergent, (C) wavy, and (D) subparallel seismic facies (Figure 4).

4.2.1. Facies A: Fill-Type Seismic Facies

Description. Facies A is characterized by low-to-moderate amplitude and low-to-high-continuity reflections, with a fill-type external form (Figure 5A,B). It normally contains a concave-upward base indicated by a V- or U-shaped high-amplitude reflector, against which underlying reflections are truncated. According to the differences in filling characteristics, this facies can be further subdivided into two subfacies: divergent fill-type and complex fill-type. The divergent fill-type subfacies consists of high-continuity reflections that gradually converge and thin from the axis to the sides, resulting in a thickness that is thicker in the middle and thinner on the sides (Figure 5A,B). The complex fill-type subfacies may contain both chaotic to discontinuous reflections and high-continuity divergent reflections (Figure 5C,D).
Interpretation. Facies A is interpreted as topographic depression or channel fills [33,38,39]. The V- or U-shaped concave-upward reflectors are interpreted as channel incisions. Variations in fill patterns may result from the lateral or vertical migration and evolution of the channels [33]. The divergent fills reflect their lateral variations in thickness related to the lateral changes in depositional rate. The vertically successive development of the divergent fills may reflect that the channels are dominated by vertical aggradation with little lateral migration. The complex fills are linked to frequent lateral migration or multiple cut-and-fill processes [33,39,40,41]. The chaotic to discontinuous reflections in the complex fills are interpreted as mass transport deposits, including landslides and slumps [21,42,43], which could be triggered by nearby tectonic uplift and/or the oversteepening of the channel walls caused by turbidity current erosion, while the moderate-to-high-amplitude reflections are linked to the interbedding of coarse-grained turbidites with fine-grained turbidites or the interbedding of turbidites with hemipelagites [39,42,43,44].

4.2.2. Facies B: Mounded Divergent Seismic Facies

Description. Facies B is composed of low-to-high-amplitude and moderate-to-high-continuity reflections, exhibiting a divergent configuration and a mounded external form (Figure 5E,F). The facies is predominantly distributed on either side of seismic facies A. The thickness of the facies normally thins away from the nearby facies A (Figure 5E,F).
Interpretation. Facies B is interpreted as levees on either side of the channels represented by seismic facies A [4,40,43,44,45,46]. Low-amplitude reflections may indicate that they are dominantly fine-grained sediments. High-amplitude reflections may reflect the interbedding nature of turbidites and hemipelagic deposits [39,40,47]. The facies are formed by unconfined muddy turbidity currents overspilling from the neighboring channels.

4.2.3. Facies C: Wavy Seismic Facies

Description. Facies C consists of regular undulating reflections with overall moderate-to-high amplitude and high continuity (Figure 5G,H). These undulations measure ~0.3–3.4 km in wavelength and 5–15 ms TWT in wave height. They exhibit apparent upslope-migration characteristics, with a thick upslope flank (backset) and a thin downslope flank (foreset). Trains of undulations typically show a downslope-decreasing trend in both wavelength and wave height (Figure 5G,H). The facies is generally distributed along the flanks of the channels, with the thickness gradually decreasing away from the channels.
Interpretation. Based on their regular wavy reflections, upslope-migrated crests, and downslope-decreasing wave sizes, facies C is interpreted as sediment waves mainly formed by turbidity currents overspilling from the channels [12,39,48,49,50,51]. More specifically, the symmetric and asymmetric waves are further interpreted, respectively, as antidunes and cyclic steps formed by unconfined supercritical turbidity currents overspilling from nearby channels [52,53,54,55,56].

4.2.4. Facies D: Subparallel Seismic Facies

Description. Facies D is characterized by parallel-to-subparallel, low-to-moderate amplitude, and high-continuity reflections (Figure 5I,J). This seismic facies shows a sheet drape form over the underlying topography.
Interpretation. The continuous sheet-like subparallel reflections within the facies represent even deposition at a uniform sedimentary rate. The low-amplitude reflections indicate a homogeneous lithology. The seismic facies is therefore interpreted as hemipelagic deposits [39,43,49,57].

4.3. Distribution of the Channels and Related Depositional Elements

During the early Late Miocene (sequence S1), a NE–SW-oriented depression was developed in the middle portion of the study area (Figure 7A), which measures 30–40 km in width and 200–400 ms TWT in depth (Figure 4 and Figure 7A). The depression can be divided into western and eastern portions by a local topographic high in between (Figure 7A). The eastern one contained relatively thick infillings (Figure 4D). The two portions merged into a depression with the disappearance of the local topographic high (Figure 7A). The topographic depressions on both sides of the uplift zone were characterized by the development of U-shaped channels (Figure 4D). The western channel had a larger length and higher sinuosity than the eastern counterpart (Figure 7A).
During the middle Late Miocene (sequence S2), along with the pre-existing depression zone that was gradually filled and the negative topography became weak, five NE–SW-oriented channels were developed in the study area (Figure 7B). The two channels in the eastern and western portions were relatively large, with widths of 6–15 km and depths of 100–150 ms TWT, while the three channels in the middle portion were relatively small, with widths of 3–5 km and depths of ~100 ms TWT (Figure 4 and Figure 7B). All the channels were U-shaped in cross sections and were filled by low-to-moderate amplitude and variable-continuity reflections (Figure 4).
During the late Late Miocene (sequence S3), four NE–SW-oriented channels were persistently developed in the study area (Figure 7C). In comparison to the channels in sequence S2, the western channel migrated westward, with channel width increasing to about 11–20 km, while the eastern channel decreased in width to about 5–12 km (Figure 4 and Figure 7C). Meanwhile, the middle two channels remained small, with widths increasing to 4–10 km and depths decreasing to ~50 ms TWT (Figure 4D and Figure 7C). These channels displayed U-shaped cross sections and were primarily filled by low-to-moderate amplitude, high-continuity, and divergent reflections (Figure 4D).
During the Early Pliocene (sequence S4), the channel system underwent a significant change. An E–W-oriented V-shaped channel was formed in the northern region, measuring 2–7 km in width and 200–400 ms TWT in depth (Figure 4D and Figure 7D). Levees were developed on both sides of the upper reach of the channel, with the left-hand levees being higher than the right-hand counterparts (Figure 4), i.e., the thickness of the left-hand levee was 40–110 ms TWT, while the right-hand levee was 10–50 ms TWT (Figure 6D). Sediment waves were mainly distributed on the left-hand side of the lower reach of the channel (Figure 7D), with wavelengths of 1–2 km and wave heights of 10–15 ms TWT (Figure 4D). Meanwhile, a NEE–SWW-oriented V-shaped channel was developed in the southern region, with a width of 5–15 km and a depth of 400 ms TWT (Figure 4 and Figure 7D). Similarly, the channel displayed preferential development of the left-hand levees (Figure 4 and Figure 7D). In addition, three inherited channels were developed in the middle portion of the study area during this period. These channels were characterized by U-shaped external forms, with widths of 4–9 km and depths of 20–40 ms TWT (Figure 4D), ultimately converging northward into the lower reach of the northern channel (Figure 7D).
During the Late Pliocene (sequence S5), the distribution of the channels was similar to that in the Early Pliocene (Figure 7D–E). The northern and southern V-shaped channels developed levees on both sides, with thicknesses ranging from 40 to 130 ms TWT (Figure 4). The left-hand levees were overall higher than the right-hand counterparts (Figure 4 and Figure 6E). Note that a sediment wave field was also developed on the left-hand side of the lower reach of the northern channel with wavelengths of 0.5–3.4 km and wave heights of 5–10 ms TWT (Figure 4D). The three inherited channels in the middle portion of the study area displayed a reduction in size during this period, with widths of 3–7 km and depths of 10–20 ms TWT (Figure 4D). These channels continued to converge northward into the lower reach of the northern channel (Figure 7E).
During the Quaternary (sequence S6), the northern and southern V-shaped inherited channels showed an overall increase in channel width (Figure 4 and Figure 7F). The northern channel had a width of ~3–10 km and a depth of ~200–400 ms TWT, with levees and sediment waves developed on both sides of the channel (Figure 4D). The levees on the left-hand side were significantly higher than those on the right-hand side, with their thicknesses ranging from 30 to 100 ms TWT for the left-hand levees and 25–50 ms TWT for the right-hand levees (Figure 4D and Figure 6F). Sediment waves displayed preferential development on the left-hand side of the lower reach of the northern channel, measuring 0.3–1.5 km in wavelength and 5–10 ms TWT in wave height (Figure 4D and Figure 7F). The southern channel had a width of ~5–12 km and a depth of 400 ms TWT, which was characterized by the development of levees on the left-hand side, with a thickness of 40–75 ms TWT, and sediment waves on the right-hand side, with a thickness of 10–30 ms TWT (Figure 4B, Figure 6F and Figure 7F). Only one inherited U-shaped channel was developed in the middle portion of the study area during this period, which continues to flow northward into the lower reach of the northern channel (Figure 4D and Figure 7F).

5. Discussion

5.1. The Formation and Evolution of Tributary Channels System

According to the above seismic stratigraphic analysis, we argue that the tributary channels in the study area initiated in the early Late Miocene, and their evolution can be divided into two stages: the Late Miocene (sequences S1–S3) and the Pliocene to Quaternary (sequences S4–S6).
The tributary channels could have originated from a NE–SW-oriented topographic depression in the early Late Miocene (sequence S1), which primarily followed a pre-existing tectonic uplift zone (Figure 4 and Figure 7A). The depression displayed a stable location and was mainly filled by moderate-to-high-continuity and divergent reflections (Figure 4). Channels started to develop along the axis of the depression, indicating evident control from tectonic-related topography. As the pre-existing depression zone gradually filled in the middle to late Late Miocene (sequences S2–S3), the influence of topography on sedimentation weakened. As a result, four to five NE–SW-oriented U-shaped channels began to develop along the depression zone (Figure 4 and Figure 7B–C). The eastern and western channels were relatively large in scale, characterized by evident lateral migration and chaotic to complex fill structures (Figure 4). Meanwhile, the middle two to three channels were smaller, primarily exhibiting vertical aggradation and divergent fill structures with high-continuity reflections (Figure 4D and Figure 7B–C). Overall, these channels displayed a gradual decrease in depth with time and an increase in the continuity of channel infillings, suggesting a gradual diminishing channel activity (Figure 4 and Figure 7A–C).
Modern continental slope topography was basically constructed in the Pliocene in the study area. At this time, tributary channels C1 and C2 initiated in the southern and northern regions, respectively (Figure 7D), indicating the formation of the modern tributary channels system. Tributary channels C1 and C2 are oriented in an ENE–WSW or near-E–W direction (Figure 7D–F), aligning with the slope gradient, which indicates the influence of modern slope topography on the strike of the channels. These tributary channels were characterized by stable locations, V-shaped cross sections, empty infillings, and the development of levees and sediment waves on both sides of the channels (Figure 4 and Figure 7D–F). These features collectively indicate erosion in channel thalwegs and sedimentation in channel levees.

5.2. The Tectonic Control

Regional tectonism may play a crucial role in the formation and evolution of the channels. This is manifested in that the channels in the study area were built on a pre-existing syn-rift depression zone (Figure 3 and Figure 4). In the Late Miocene, the direction of regional plate movement along the Alpine Fault plate boundary underwent a change from mostly strike–slip to strongly transpressive (~10–8 Ma) [9,15,58,59,60,61,62]. This tectonic reorganization is evidenced by a regional phase of tectonism and volcanism that occurred in the Late Miocene (Kaikoura Orogeny; about 15–10 Ma), marked by the eruption of alkalic volcanoes, regional faulting, and folding of sediments up to the early Late Miocene age throughout the Bounty Trough [9,14,15,62]. This phenomenon could be related to an increase in the convergence rate between the Pacific and Australian plates, leading to the uplift of the Southern Alps and increasing rates of sediment supply to the Bounty Trough [9,58,59,63]. These tectonic changes likely favored the initiation of channels in the study area, which is consistent with the previous assumption that the modern physiography of the Bounty Trough, including the present Bounty Channel and abyssal Bounty Fan, all date from the Kaikoura event [9,14]. Meanwhile, the pre-existing NE–SW-oriented uplift zone may be strengthened by this tectonic reorganization, which in turn regulates the direction of the early-stage NE–SW-oriented channels (Figure 4 and Figure 7A). Along with the inherited depression zone gradually filling over time, its control on the distribution of the channels diminished. This resulted in the early NE–SW-oriented channels decreasing activity and finally being abandoned (Figure 4D and Figure 7B–F).
Uplift of the Southern Alps in central South Island started to speed up at ~5 Ma, related to the acceleration of the convergence rate between the Pacific and Australian plates [9,59,64]. This progress may result in the formation of an obvious erosion unconformity, i.e., the base of sequence S4 (corresponding to N60) (Figure 3 and Figure 4), which indicates a new tectonic tilting and potentially causes an overall change in the orientation of the Pliocene to Quaternary tributary channels. Moreover, this can greatly increase the supply of terrigenous sediments to the study area, promoting the formation of modern tributary channels C1 and C2. These tributary channels mainly aligned with the slope gradient of the continental slope (Figure 4 and Figure 7D–F), suggesting the control of modern slope topography on the distribution of the channels. Well-developed levees and sediment waves on both sides of tributary channels C1 and C2 and their V-shaped channel thalwegs (Figure 4 and Figure 7D–F) indicate that turbidity currents processes have been highly active in the channels since the Pliocene. Previous studies have indicated that the Bounty Channel and Bounty Fan probably originated as early as the Late Miocene but have mostly been built during the last 3 million years (Plio-Pleistocene), which is consistent with our observations [7,8,9,11,62].

5.3. The Effect of Coriolis Force

It is noted that asymmetrical levees, with the left-hand levees being higher and thicker than the right-hand counterparts, were present in the Pliocene to Quaternary tributary channels C1 and C2 (Figure 4). This phenomenon could be attributed to the influence of the Coriolis force in the Southern Hemisphere, which can deflect the overspilling turbidity currents to the left, thereby resulting in the preferential development of left-hand levees (Figure 8) [4,7,8,65,66,67,68]. Furthermore, we also observed that sediment waves were preferentially developed on the left-hand side of the lower reach of tributary channel C2 during the Pliocene to Quaternary (Figure 4D and Figure 7D–F). This phenomenon could be related to a decrease in channel confinement as the relief of the channel gradually diminishes downstream (Figure 4D). Therefore, relatively high-energy turbidity currents more easily overspill from the lower reach of the channel, resulting in the formation of sediment waves on the left-hand side under the influence of the Coriolis force (Figure 8). This observation aligns with previous findings indicating the preferential development of levees and sediment waves on the left-hand side of the trunk channel of the Bounty Channel [7,12].
In addition, the Quaternary tributary channel C1 was characterized by the development of levees on the left-hand side and sediment waves on the right-hand side of the channel (Figure 4B and Figure 7F). The thinning of both levees and sediment waves away from the axis of the channel (Figure 4B and Figure 7F) suggests that they are both parts of the overflow deposits from tributary channel C1. The prevalence of sediment waves on the right-hand side of channel C1 may be attributed to the lower right-hand levees compared to their left-hand counterparts (Figure 4B), affected by the Coriolis force. This results in the overflowing turbidity currents on the right-hand side being thicker, faster, and more concentrated than those on the left-hand side, favoring the development of sediment waves or supercritical turbidity current bedforms on the right-hand side of the channel (Figure 8).

5.4. Other Controls

In addition to the effect of the Coriolis force, bottom currents and centrifugal forces may be also important factors influencing the asymmetric development of levees [7].
According to seismic data interpretations [69,70] and flume-tank experiments [71], bottom currents flowing perpendicular to the channel can carry more sediments out of the channel at the flank located downstream of the bottom currents, enhancing the development of levees and more abundant bedforms at this side of the channel. Previous studies have suggested that the northward-flowing AAIW and DWBC are respectively responsible for the preferential development of levees and sediment waves on the northern (left-hand) sides of the main channel of Bounty Channel and the channels on the Bounty Fan [8,14,26,37,65,72]. Given that the studied tributary channels C1 and C2 are situated within the water depths influenced by AAIW (Figure 1A), it is plausible to speculate that AAIW may also contribute to the preferential development of levees on the northern sides of the channels.
In the Southern Hemisphere, centrifugal forces and Coriolis effects act together in left-turning channel bends and against each other in right-turning channel bends when viewed in the downstream direction [7,67]. When the Coriolis and centrifugal forces are in opposition, it is confirmed that the dominance of one will depend upon the velocity of the turbidity current and the degree of channel curvature. Considering that centrifugal forces mainly operate at channel bends and tributary channels C1 and C2 in the study area are relatively straight (Figure 7D–F), the effect of centrifugal forces on the asymmetric development of levees in this study may be limited.

6. Conclusions

Tributary channels C1 and C2 of the Bounty Channel were developed above an inherited syn-rift depression zone. In the channel-developed interval, six seismic sequences (S1–S6) were subdivided, with sequences S1–S3 dated as the Upper Miocene, S4–S5 as the Pliocene, and S6 as the Quaternary.
Four types of seismic facies related to the channels were identified: fill-type, mounded divergent, wavy, and subparallel seismic facies, which were respectively interpreted as topographic depression or channel fills, levees, sediment waves, and hemipelagic deposits.
The formation and evolution of the studied channel system can be divided into two stages: the Late Miocene and the Pliocene to Quaternary. The development of Late Miocene NE–SW-oriented channels was mainly controlled by a pre-existing depression zone. The Pliocene to Quaternary tributary channels C1–C2 changed to a near-E–W-oriented direction, which was primarily influenced by modern slope topography. These tributary channels were characterized by V-shaped erosional thalwegs and the development of levees and sediment waves on both sides of the channels. These features indicate strong turbidity currents activity in the channels, which may be associated with enhanced uplift and erosion at the Southern Alps since the Pliocene. The preferential development of higher levees on the left-hand side of the channels and the presence of sediment waves on the right-hand lower levees are linked to the effect of the Coriolis force.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.H. and X.D.; methodology, K.H., X.D. and X.L.; resources, K.H.; software, X.D.; supervision, K.H.; validation, K.H. and X.D.; data curation, X.D. and X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, K.H. and X.D.; writing—review and editing, K.H. and X.D.; visualization, X.D.; project administration, K.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Number 41876049).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data used in this study are available upon request from New Zealand Petroleum and Minerals (NZP&M): https://www.nzpam.govt.nz/maps-geoscience/exploration-database (accessed on 16 May 2022).

Acknowledgments

We thank NZP&M for providing the seismic reflection data. We are grateful to anonymous reviewers for their pertinent and constructive comments, which substantially improved the manuscript. The first author thanks Guangfa Zhong for his supervision during the manuscript preparation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (A) Location map of the study area (red rectangle) in the offshore of eastern South Island, New Zealand. Dotted arrowed lines represent active ocean currents along the margin. SC: Southland Current; AAIW: Antarctic Intermediate Water; DWBC: Deep Western Boundary Current. (B) Enlarged bathymetric map showing the characteristics of the tributary channels (C1 to C3) of the Bounty Channel. Also shown are the locations of available two-dimensional multichannel seismic data (dark gray solid lines). Red solid lines indicate the locations of seismic profiles shown in this paper. Red dots denote petroleum exploration wells. The bathymetric map is derived from the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans 2023 Grid [13] (accessed on 10 March 2023 from https://www.gebco.net/).
Figure 1. (A) Location map of the study area (red rectangle) in the offshore of eastern South Island, New Zealand. Dotted arrowed lines represent active ocean currents along the margin. SC: Southland Current; AAIW: Antarctic Intermediate Water; DWBC: Deep Western Boundary Current. (B) Enlarged bathymetric map showing the characteristics of the tributary channels (C1 to C3) of the Bounty Channel. Also shown are the locations of available two-dimensional multichannel seismic data (dark gray solid lines). Red solid lines indicate the locations of seismic profiles shown in this paper. Red dots denote petroleum exploration wells. The bathymetric map is derived from the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans 2023 Grid [13] (accessed on 10 March 2023 from https://www.gebco.net/).
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Figure 2. Simplified tectono-stratigraphic column in the Bounty Trough (modified from Barrier et al., 2021 [15]), with key horizons and seismic stratal units used in this study.
Figure 2. Simplified tectono-stratigraphic column in the Bounty Trough (modified from Barrier et al., 2021 [15]), with key horizons and seismic stratal units used in this study.
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Figure 3. (A) Uninterpreted and (B) interpreted dip-oriented (NW-SE) seismic profiles showing the rift geometry and seismic sequence subdivision in the study area. See Figure 1B for profile location.
Figure 3. (A) Uninterpreted and (B) interpreted dip-oriented (NW-SE) seismic profiles showing the rift geometry and seismic sequence subdivision in the study area. See Figure 1B for profile location.
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Figure 4. (A,C) Uninterpreted and (B,D) interpreted dip-oriented (NW-SE) seismic profiles showing the characteristics of the tributary channels (C1 and C2) and related depositional elements. See Figure 1B for profile locations.
Figure 4. (A,C) Uninterpreted and (B,D) interpreted dip-oriented (NW-SE) seismic profiles showing the characteristics of the tributary channels (C1 and C2) and related depositional elements. See Figure 1B for profile locations.
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Figure 5. Pairs of intersecting seismic profiles showing the characteristics of various types of seismic facies. (A,B) Divergent fill seismic facies, (C,D) complex fill seismic facies, (E,F) mounded divergent seismic facies, (G,H) wavy seismic facies, and (I,J) subparallel seismic facies. See Figure 1B for profile locations.
Figure 5. Pairs of intersecting seismic profiles showing the characteristics of various types of seismic facies. (A,B) Divergent fill seismic facies, (C,D) complex fill seismic facies, (E,F) mounded divergent seismic facies, (G,H) wavy seismic facies, and (I,J) subparallel seismic facies. See Figure 1B for profile locations.
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Figure 6. Isochron maps showing the variations in the thickness of individual seismic sequences. (A) Sequence S1, (B) Sequence S2, (C) Sequence S3, (D) Sequence S4, (E) Sequence S5, and (F) Sequence S6.
Figure 6. Isochron maps showing the variations in the thickness of individual seismic sequences. (A) Sequence S1, (B) Sequence S2, (C) Sequence S3, (D) Sequence S4, (E) Sequence S5, and (F) Sequence S6.
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Figure 7. Maps showing the distribution of the channels and related depositional elements in sequences (A–F) S1 to S6.
Figure 7. Maps showing the distribution of the channels and related depositional elements in sequences (A–F) S1 to S6.
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Figure 8. Sketch map showing the development of high levees on the left-hand side of the channels and the presence of sediment waves on the low levees with developed sediment waves on the right-hand side of the channels.
Figure 8. Sketch map showing the development of high levees on the left-hand side of the channels and the presence of sediment waves on the low levees with developed sediment waves on the right-hand side of the channels.
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Deng, X.; Huang, K.; Li, X. Sedimentary Characteristics and Evolution of the Late Miocene to Quaternary Tributary Channels in the Head of Bounty Channel, New Zealand. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 6160. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146160

AMA Style

Deng X, Huang K, Li X. Sedimentary Characteristics and Evolution of the Late Miocene to Quaternary Tributary Channels in the Head of Bounty Channel, New Zealand. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(14):6160. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146160

Chicago/Turabian Style

Deng, Xinlan, Ke Huang, and Xiang Li. 2024. "Sedimentary Characteristics and Evolution of the Late Miocene to Quaternary Tributary Channels in the Head of Bounty Channel, New Zealand" Applied Sciences 14, no. 14: 6160. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146160

APA Style

Deng, X., Huang, K., & Li, X. (2024). Sedimentary Characteristics and Evolution of the Late Miocene to Quaternary Tributary Channels in the Head of Bounty Channel, New Zealand. Applied Sciences, 14(14), 6160. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146160

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