Insight into the Impact of Food Processing and Culinary Preparations on the Stability and Content of Plant Alkaloids Considered as Natural Food Contaminants
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Natural Toxic Plant Alkaloids with Relevant Occurrence in Food
2.1. Origin, Toxicity and Occurrence of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PAs)
2.2. Origin, Toxicity and Occurrence of Tropane Alkaloids (TAs)
2.3. Origin, Toxicity and Occurrence of Opium Alkaloids (OAs)
3. Effect of Food Processing and Culinary Preparations on PAs, TAs and OAs
3.1. Thermal Treatment
3.2. Fermentation
Analytes | Sample | Thermal Treatment Conditions | Effect Observed | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids | ||||
Re, Jb, JbNO, Jl, Jz, DehydroJc, HydroxyJb, Eruc, Sk, Ot, Fl | Thermized milk | Pasteurization: 76 °C for 15 s Sterilization: 140 °C for 4 s | No significant effects observed | [67] |
Re | Maize flour and maize porridge | Heating in a boiling water bath for 3 h | Approximately reduction of 40% | [71] |
Re, Sc, Jb, Sp, Im, He, Eu, Sk, ReNO, ScNO, JbNO, SpNO, ImNO, HeNO, EuNO | Green and black teas | Black tea: dried at 110 °C Green tea: fixed at 220–230 °C for de-enzyme and dried at 110 °C | Reduction of 0.8–79.2% | [72] |
He, HeNO, Ls, LsNO, Sc, ScNO, Ig, IgNO, Sa | Pollen | Heating at 35, 40 and 60 °C for 72 and 84 h. | Reduction of 30–75% | [75] |
Re, Ech, Im, ImNO, Sc, EchNo, ReNO, Ev | Bee bread | 30 °C for 6 months | Reduction of 33–39% | [77] |
Tropane alkaloids | ||||
At | Datura stramonium and Brugmansia seeds and buckwheat | Heating at 80 °C and pH 9 | Racemization of At | [41] |
At, Scp | Bread crumb a Bread bark a | Baking at 215 °C for 35 min | Bread crumb: Reduction of 13–25% Bread bark: Reduction of 18–28% | [78] |
An, Scp, At, Lt, Ap, Hm, Apo, Scpl, Tropi | Bread b | Baking at 190 °C for 40 min | Reduction of 11–100%, except Apo and Ap which increased, possibly due to the degradation and transformation of other analytes into these compounds | [79] |
At, Scp, An | Breadsticks | Baking at 180 °C for 20 min | Reduction of 7–65% | [80] |
An, Scp, At, Lt, Ap, Hm, Apo, Scpl, Tropi | Pasta | Boiling at 100 °C for 10 min | Reduction of 24–66% | [81] |
An, Scp, Coc, Benzoylec, At, Lt, Ap, Apo, Hm, Ch, Ecg, Scpl, Tropi, Trpn, Tr | Tea | Water infusion at 100 °C, left to cool for 5 min | Reduction of 2–87%, except Apo, Ap, Ecg and Tropi, which increased, possibly due to the degradation and transformation of other analytes into these compounds | [81] |
Opium alkaloids | ||||
Mor, Cod | Cakes Buns | Cakes: Baking at 180 °C for 20 min Buns: Baking at 220 °C for 20 min (toppings) | Cakes: Reduction of 50–90% Buns: Reduction of 93–97% | [52] |
Mor, Cod, Th, Pap, Nos | Muffins and Rolls | Baking at 180 °C for 15 min | Reduction of 100% | [56] |
Mor, Cod, Th, Pap, Nos | Breadsticks | Baking at 180 °C for 20 min | Reduction of 23–100% | [80] |
Mor | Bread | Conditions #1: Baking at 135 °C Conditions #2: Baking at 220 °C | Conditions #1: Reduction of 10–50% Conditions #2: Reduction pf 30% | [82] |
Mor, Cod, Th | Muffin | Baking at 120 °C for 120 min | No significant effects observed | [83] |
Mor | Cake | Baking at 180 °C for 20 min | Reduction of 55–75% | [85] |
Analytes | Sample | Fermentation Conditions | Fermentation Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids | ||||
Re, Jb, JbNO, Jl, Jz, DehydroJc, HydroxyJb, Eruc, Sk, Ot, Fl | Yoghurt | 0.02% v/v starter culture (Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Bulgaricus) 42 °C for 6 h until pH 4.4 | Reduction of 27% | [67] |
Re, Jb, JbNO, Jl, Jz, DehydroJc, HydroxyJb, Eruc, Sk, Ot, Fl | Cheese | 0.04% v/v mixed-strain mesophilic starter culture (composed of various strains of the species Lactococcus lactis cremoris and Leuconostoc spp.), Rennet of animal origin, 31 °C for 56 min | Reduction of 14% | [67] |
Re, Sc, Jb, Sp, Im, He, Eu, Sk, ReNO, JbNO, SpNO, ScNO, ImNO, HeNO, EuNO | Black tea | Under high relative humidity and temperature for 5–6 h | Increase in the PA and PANO content | [72] |
n.p. *a | Mead | n.p. * | Values found well above the average of regular retail honey | [86] |
Ech, EchNO, Echi, EchiNO, AcetylEch, AcetylEchNO, AcetylEchi, AcetylEchiNO | Mead | n.p. * | Reduction of 30–70% | [87] |
Tropane alkaloids | ||||
An, Scp, At, Lt, Ap, Hm, Apo, Scpl, Tropi | Bread | 37 °C during 1 h | Reduction of 19–65% (except for Ap, Apo and Tropi) b | [79] |
3.3. Infusion
Analytes | Sample | Brewing Conditions | Transfer Rate | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids | ||||
Ech, EchNO, En, EnNO, Eu, EuNO, Hs, HsNO, He, HeNO, In, InNO, Ig, IgNO, Im, ImNO, Ls, LsNO, Lyc, LycNO, Re, ReNO, Sc, ScNO, Sp, SpNO, Sv, SvNO, Sk, Us | Fennel and anise teas | n.p. * | n.p. * (lower than 100%) a | [70] |
Re | Lucerne herbal tea | 100 °C for 3 h | Approximately 100% | [71] |
Re, Sc, Jb, Sp, Im, He, Eu, Sk, ReNO, ScNO, JbNO, SpNO, ImNO, HeNO, EuNO | Green tea | First infusion: 100 °C for 4 min Second infusion: 100 °C for 4 min | 41–93% | [72] |
Ech, Eruc, Eu, He, In, Im, Jb, Ls, Lyc, Mc, Re, Sc, Sp, Sv, Sk, Td, EchNO, ErucNO, EuNO, HeNO, InNO, ImNO, JbNO, LsNO, LycNO, McNO, ReNO, ScNO, SpNO, SvNO | Rooibos tea | 100 °C for 6 min | 16–45% | [90] |
Ech, Lyc, Mc, Sc, ScNO, Sp, He, Ls, Sk, Re | Herbal teas (mix, rooibos, linden, mint, verbena, camomile) | 100 °C for 10 min with slight agitation | Approximately 100% | [93] |
Sk | Coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara L.) | n.p. * | 80% | [94] |
Re, Ls, LsNO, He, HeNO, Td, Mc, Sc, Sp, Ech, EchNO, Eruc, ErucNO, Eu, EuNO, Im, ImNO, Jb, JbNO, Lyc, LycNO, McNO, ReNO, ScNO, SpNO, Sv, SvNO, Sk | Teas (black tea, green tea) and herbal teas (rooibos, chamomile, peppermint, mix) | 100 °C for 5 min | Overall, 85% (individual samples varied between 40 and 250%) | [95] |
9 PAs | Peppermint herbal tea | n.p. * | 84–103% | [96] |
Ech, Eruc, ErucNO, Eu, EuNO, He, HeNO, Im, Jb, JbNO, Ls, LsNO, Lyc, Mc, McNO, Re, ReNO, Sc, ScNO, Sp, SpNO, Sk, Td | Teas and herbal teas (nettle, fennel fruits, chamomile, melissa, peppermint, mix (valerian, hopcone, lavender, caraway, anise, coriander)) | 100 °C for 15 min | 1–21% | [97] |
Ech, ErucNO, Eu, EuNO, Im, ImNO, Jb, JbNO, Ls, Lyc, LycNO, Mc, Sc, ScNO, Sk, Sv, SvNO, Td, Re, Sp, Jl, Hs, Rn, Ev, EchNO, HeNO, McNO, LsNO, ReNO, SpNO | Black tea, green tea, mixed herbal tea, peppermint tea, red bush tea, senna tea | ISO brewing procedure: 100 °C for 6 min (capping and shaking). The procedure was repeated two more times. Vendor’s instructions for brewing: - Black tea: 100 °C for 4 min (uncapped) - Green tea: first extraction at 80 °C for 2 min (uncapped) + second extraction at 100 °C for 1 min (uncapped) - Mixed herbal tea: 100 °C for 10 min (capped) - Peppermint tea: 100 °C for 6 min (uncapped) - Red bush tea: 100 °C for 6 min (uncapped) - Senna tea: 80 °C for 10 min (uncapped) | 52–100% (ISO brewing procedure) 63–100% (vendor’s instructions) | [98] |
Tropane alkaloids | ||||
At, Scp | Tea | 100 °C for 4.5 min | 42–54% | [35] |
An, Scp, At, Lt, Ap, Hm, Apo, Scpl, Tropi | Tea | Tea: 100 °C, left to cool for 5 min | 20–92% | [81] |
At, Scp | Fennel tea | 100 °C for 5 min | 47–88% | [101] |
Opium alkaloids | ||||
Morphine (Mor), Codeine (Cod), Thebaine (Th) Papaverine (Pap), Noscapine (Nos) | Poppy seed tea | 90 °C for 5 min | 71–100% | [104] |
3.4. Other Treatments (Grinding, Washing and Soaking)
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Casado, N.; Casado-Hidalgo, G.; González-Gómez, L.; Morante-Zarcero, S.; Sierra, I. Insight into the Impact of Food Processing and Culinary Preparations on the Stability and Content of Plant Alkaloids Considered as Natural Food Contaminants. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031704
Casado N, Casado-Hidalgo G, González-Gómez L, Morante-Zarcero S, Sierra I. Insight into the Impact of Food Processing and Culinary Preparations on the Stability and Content of Plant Alkaloids Considered as Natural Food Contaminants. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(3):1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031704
Chicago/Turabian StyleCasado, Natalia, Gema Casado-Hidalgo, Lorena González-Gómez, Sonia Morante-Zarcero, and Isabel Sierra. 2023. "Insight into the Impact of Food Processing and Culinary Preparations on the Stability and Content of Plant Alkaloids Considered as Natural Food Contaminants" Applied Sciences 13, no. 3: 1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031704