Experimental and Statistical Study on the Formation Characteristics and Discrimination Criteria of River Blockages Caused by Landslides
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Setup
2.2. Experimental Materials
2.3. Experimental Scheme
3. Experimental Results
3.1. Landslide Dam Formation Process
3.2. River Blockage Induced by Landslide Dams
3.3. Effect of Different Factors on Blockage Type
3.3.1. Effect of Material Conditions
3.3.2. Effect of Slide Angle
3.3.3. Effect of the Landslide Velocity Entering the River
3.4. Analysis of the Degree of River Blockage
4. River Blockage Criteria
4.1. An Improved Probability Model
4.2. Discrimination of Statistical Landslide Cases
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Number | Locality | Material | H (m) | α (°) | LT (m) | LL (m) | Wmax (m) | T (m) | V (106 m3) | WV (m) | θ (°) | Blockage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Comineto | debris | 177 | 12 | 820 | 540 | 450 | 22.5 | 2.86 | 75 | 3.4 | Complete blockage |
2 | Groppallo | debris | 618 | 11 | 3680 | 1700 | 725 | 25 | 22.24 | 330 | 8.5 | Partial blockage |
3 | Ciano | debris | 245 | 10 | 1640 | 1050 | 750 | 37.5 | 18.55 | 660 | 0.2 | Partial blockage |
4 | Cervarezza | debris | 760 | 13 | 3300 | 1500 | 1200 | 78 | 50.54 | 440 | 1.3 | Partial blockage |
5 | Caselle | debris | 200 | 25 | 500 | 380 | 500 | 15 | 1.49 | 100 | 0.6 | Complete blockage |
6 | S.Piero in Bagno | debris | 420 | 5 | 4500 | 2900 | 1800 | 50 | 136.59 | 300 | 1.2 | Complete blockage |
7 | Tozzi | rock | 335 | 16.6 | 1370 | 900 | 400 | 20 | 3.14 | 225 | 0.5 | Partial blockage |
8 | S.Agata Feltria | earth | 593 | 8.2 | 4530 | 3000 | 1375 | 30 | 64.76 | 75 | 4.4 | Complete blockage |
9 | Sorbano | rock | 231 | 9.3 | 1640 | 950 | 350 | 35 | 5.82 | 225 | 1.1 | Complete blockage |
10 | Pian de’ Romiti | debris | 25 | 5 | 300 | 160 | 120 | 20 | 0.72 | 20 | 0.5 | Complete blockage |
11 | Fosso Falterona | debris | 350 | 30 | 700 | 530 | 200 | 10 | 1.40 | 25 | 10 | Complete blockage |
12 | Roncovetro | debris | 335 | 7.8 | 2500 | 1500 | 280 | 15 | 3.30 | 40 | 3.4 | Complete blockage |
13 | Gallare | rock | 90 | 11.5 | 590 | 400 | 110 | 25 | 0.58 | 175 | 0.6 | Partial blockage |
14 | Scanno | bedrock | 495 | 11.7 | 3200 | 2400 | 2000 | 50 | 82.00 | 200 | 0.6 | Complete blockage |
15 | Schiazzano | debris and earth | 75 | 51.3 | 225 | 60 | 70 | 15 | 0.04 | 40 | 1.9 | Complete blockage |
16 | Corniolo | rock | 325 | 18 | 1000 | 530 | 420 | 15 | 3.00 | 140 | 0.9 | Complete blockage |
17 | Valderchia | debris | 110 | 14.3 | 430 | 400 | 170 | 15 | 0.50 | 90 | 3.1 | Partial blockage |
18 | Castello di Serravalle | debris | 390 | 24.9 | 1030 | 840 | 280 | 10 | 1.00 | 130 | 2.6 | Partial blockage |
19 | Boschi di Valoria | earth | 810 | 13 | 3500 | 2000 | 620 | 10 | 13.00 | 250 | 1.7 | Partial blockage |
20 | Rosola | debris | 90 | 4.3 | 1200 | 620 | 350 | 12 | 1.00 | 180 | 3.5 | Partial blockage |
21 | Roccalbegna | earth | 234 | 10.2 | 1300 | 1300 | 400 | 20 | 8.00 | 80 | 10.2 | Partial blockage |
22 | Piaggiagrande-Renaio | rock and debris | 83 | 18.7 | 245 | 215 | 130 | 30 | 0.70 | 60 | 9.5 | Partial blockage |
23 | Camporella | debris | 260 | 13.3 | 1100 | 1000 | 300 | 50 | 5.00 | 320 | 1.9 | Partial blockage |
24 | Ossola | debris | 170 | 7.7 | 1250 | 950 | 270 | 15 | 3.00 | 110 | 1.1 | Partial blockage |
25 | Settefrati | rock and debris | 63 | 18.8 | 185 | 135 | 180 | 27 | 0.34 | 45 | 17.2 | Partial blockage |
26 | Benedello | rock and debris | 246 | 10 | 1400 | 830 | 480 | 20 | 3.50 | 90 | 1.7 | Partial blockage |
27 | Draga | earth | 240 | 9.7 | 1400 | 1200 | 500 | 20 | 6.50 | 135 | 3.8 | Partial blockage |
28 | Bardea | debris | 49 | 12 | 230 | 130 | 140 | 10 | 0.20 | 80 | 2.4 | Partial blockage |
29 | Zillona | rock and debris | 145 | 12.6 | 650 | 375 | 160 | 10 | 0.35 | 110 | 1.1 | Partial blockage |
30 | Voltre | debris and earth | 115 | 9.1 | 719 | 690 | 150 | 10 | 1.00 | 260 | 0.9 | Partial blockage |
31 | Cà di Rico | earth | 65 | 9 | 410 | 380 | 170 | 10 | 0.50 | 65 | 2.7 | Partial blockage |
32 | Lago Costantino | debris and earth | 320 | 28.1 | 600 | 360 | 750 | 130 | 16.00 | 200 | 3.4 | Partial blockage |
33 | Ronchi | debris | 115 | 14 | 460 | 410 | 365 | 20 | 2.00 | 110 | 1.9 | Partial blockage |
34 | Covatta | earth | 280 | 11.1 | 1430 | 700 | 500 | 10 | 2.00 | 250 | 0.3 | Partial blockage |
35 | S. Cristina | debris | 101 | 7.2 | 800 | 750 | 1200 | 70 | 25.00 | 250 | 3 | Complete blockage |
36 | Marro | debris | 58 | 4.4 | 750 | 650 | 700 | 50 | 15.00 | 150 | 1.9 | Complete blockage |
37 | Cumi | debris and earth | 61 | 4.4 | 800 | 710 | 900 | 60 | 20.00 | 210 | 2 | Complete blockage |
38 | Cucco | debris and earth | 19 | 2.2 | 500 | 360 | 270 | 20 | 1.00 | 115 | 7.8 | Complete blockage |
39 | Antrona | debris and rock | 1500 | 45 | 2900 | 1200 | 1700 | 80 | 28.00 | 620 | 6.4 | Complete blockage |
40 | Val Pola | rock | 1340 | 32 | 2035 | 900 | 1700 | 90 | 40.00 | 400 | 1.2 | Complete blockage |
41 | Alleghe | debris and rock | 900 | 30 | 2000 | 750 | 1400 | 70 | 20.00 | 400 | 0.8 | Complete blockage |
42 | Val Vanoi | debris | 820 | 25 | 2428 | 600 | 1200 | 100 | 15.00 | 300 | 1.6 | Complete blockage |
43 | Borta | debris and rock | 925 | 30 | 2200 | 950 | 1150 | 100 | 30.00 | 250 | 0.5 | Complete blockage |
44 | Villar | rock | 780 | 18.7 | 2800 | 2300 | 1500 | 120 | 150.00 | 330 | 1.3 | Complete blockage |
45 | Fenestrelle | rock and debris | 300 | 14 | 1600 | 1200 | 1100 | 100 | 100.00 | 500 | 1.1 | Complete blockage |
46 | Serre la Voute | rock and debris | 590 | 18.1 | 1900 | 1800 | 1350 | 140 | 150.00 | 500 | 0.9 | Complete blockage |
47 | Piuro | debris and rock | 1250 | 55 | 3000 | 1000 | 900 | 10 | 6.00 | 450 | 3.6 | Complete blockage |
48 | Contr. Cugno Giovanni | rock | 145 | 19.9 | 400 | 230 | 275 | 40 | 1.32 | 130 | 3.2 | Partial blockage |
49 | Randazzo-Nord | debris and rock | 25 | 0.7 | 2200 | 2200 | 800 | 20 | 18.42 | 190 | 2.1 | Partial blockage |
50 | Contr. Vettrana | rock and earth | 415 | 7.9 | 3000 | 2350 | 720 | 12 | 6.21 | 180 | 1.6 | Partial blockage |
51 | Roccella Valdemone- Ovest | rock and earth | 130 | 17.2 | 420 | 410 | 260 | 9 | 0.48 | 115 | 3.6 | Partial blockage |
52 | Portella Colla II | debris, earth, and rock | 1290 | 11.7 | 6250 | 4500 | 3000 | 40 | 282.60 | 850 | 3.5 | Complete blockage |
53 | Contr. Ufra | rock | 130 | 10.5 | 700 | 640 | 1000 | 87 | 40.00 | 295 | 1.1 | Complete blockage |
54 | Fondo Barone | earth | 40 | 3.1 | 750 | 600 | 300 | 18 | 1.70 | 290 | 2.4 | Partial blockage |
55 | Contr. Salmicella | rock | 240 | 28.1 | 450 | 185 | 280 | 20 | 0.54 | 180 | 2 | Partial blockage |
56 | Contr. La Sarculla | rock | 200 | 27.8 | 380 | 220 | 800 | 15 | 1.00 | 230 | 8.9 | Partial blockage |
57 | Contr. Scala Vecchia | rock | 150 | 31 | 250 | 230 | 400 | 30 | 0.80 | 210 | 0.4 | Partial blockage |
58 | Cavallerizzo | rock and debris | 143 | 9 | 1100 | 900 | 200 | 40 | 5.00 | 65 | 8.4 | Complete blockage |
59 | Testi | debris | 48 | 9.4 | 340 | 290 | 400 | 20 | 1.21 | 60 | 9.8 | Complete blockage |
60 | Barattano | earth | 27 | 6.4 | 240 | 200 | 50 | 14 | 0.07 | 95 | 3.6 | Complete blockage |
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Experimental ID | Slide Angle (°) | Particle Size (cm) | Volume (m3) | Flow Velocity (m/s) | Flow Rate (m3/s) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A1-1 | 30 | 0.1–0.2 | 0.02 | 0.6321 | 0.0199 |
A1-2 | 0.04 | ||||
A1-3 | 0.06 | ||||
A1-4 | 0.08 | ||||
A1-5 | 0.1 | ||||
A2-1 | 0.2–0.5 | 0.02 | 0.6378 | 0.0201 | |
A2-2 | 0.04 | ||||
A2-3 | 0.06 | ||||
A2-4 | 0.08 | ||||
A2-5 | 0.1 | ||||
A3-1 | 0.5–1.0 | 0.02 | 0.6412 | 0.0202 | |
A3-2 | 0.04 | ||||
A3-3 | 0.06 | ||||
A3-4 | 0.08 | ||||
A3-5 | 0.1 | ||||
B1-1 | 35 | 0.1–0.2 | 0.02 | 0.6263 | 0.0197 |
B1-2 | 0.04 | ||||
B1-3 | 0.06 | ||||
B1-4 | 0.08 | ||||
B1-5 | 0.1 | ||||
B2-1 | 0.2–0.5 | 0.02 | 0.6145 | 0.0194 | |
B2-2 | 0.04 | ||||
B2-3 | 0.06 | ||||
B2-4 | 0.08 | ||||
B2-5 | 0.1 | ||||
B3-1 | 0.5–1.0 | 0.02 | 0.6378 | 0.0201 | |
B3-2 | 0.04 | ||||
B3-3 | 0.06 | ||||
B3-4 | 0.08 | ||||
B3-5 | 0.1 | ||||
C1-1 | 40 | 0.1–0.2 | 0.02 | 0.6377 | 0.0201 |
C1-2 | 0.04 | ||||
C1-3 | 0.06 | ||||
C1-4 | 0.08 | ||||
C1-5 | 0.1 | ||||
C2-1 | 0.2–0.5 | 0.02 | 0.6276 | 0.0198 | |
C2-2 | 0.04 | ||||
C2-3 | 0.06 | ||||
C2-4 | 0.08 | ||||
C2-5 | 0.1 | ||||
C3-1 | 0.5–1.0 | 0.02 | 0.6296 | 0.0198 | |
C3-2 | 0.04 | ||||
C3-3 | 0.06 | ||||
C3-4 | 0.08 | ||||
C3-5 | 0.1 |
River Blockage Type | Degree of Blockage | Relationships of Characteristic Heights | Representative Experimental Test |
---|---|---|---|
Type 1-1 | Partially blocked | Hmin < hw Hmax appears in the middle of the river. | A1-1, A3-1 |
Type 1-2 | Hmax > hw > Hmin Hmax appears on the opposite side. | B3-1, C3-1 | |
Type 1-3 | Hmax > hw > Hmin Hmax appears on the landslide side. | A2-2, B1-2 | |
Type 2-1 | Fully blocked | Hmax > Hmin > hw Hmax appears in the middle of the river. | B3-3, C3-2 |
Type 2-2 | Hmax > Hmin > hw Hmax appears on the landslide side. | \ | |
Type 2-3 | Hmax > Hmin > hw Hmax appears on the opposite side. | A2-5, B1-4 |
Experiment Results | Prediction Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Experiment Blockage State | Total Number of Groups | Number of Partial Blockage | Number of Complete Blockage | Accuracy |
Partial blockage | 27 | 25 | 2 | 92.6% |
Complete blockage | 18 | 2 | 16 | 88.9% |
Overall accuracy | 91.1% |
Real Landslide Cases | Prediction Results | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Blockage State of Landslide Case | Total Number of Cases | Number of Partial Blockage | Number of Complete Blockage | Accuracy |
Partial blockage | 16 | 9 | 7 | 56.3% |
Complete blockage | 44 | 3 | 41 | 93.2% |
Overall accuracy | 83.3% |
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Share and Cite
Zhuo, L.; Hu, Y.-F.; Xiao, M.-L.; Luo, Y.; Liu, H.-Z.; Xie, H.-Q.; Pei, J.-L. Experimental and Statistical Study on the Formation Characteristics and Discrimination Criteria of River Blockages Caused by Landslides. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 12003. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132112003
Zhuo L, Hu Y-F, Xiao M-L, Luo Y, Liu H-Z, Xie H-Q, Pei J-L. Experimental and Statistical Study on the Formation Characteristics and Discrimination Criteria of River Blockages Caused by Landslides. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(21):12003. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132112003
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhuo, Li, Yun-Feng Hu, Ming-Li Xiao, Yu Luo, Huai-Zhong Liu, Hong-Qiang Xie, and Jian-Liang Pei. 2023. "Experimental and Statistical Study on the Formation Characteristics and Discrimination Criteria of River Blockages Caused by Landslides" Applied Sciences 13, no. 21: 12003. https://doi.org/10.3390/app132112003