Materials Development and Potential Applications of Ceramics: New Opportunities and Challenges

1. Introduction

Ceramics have been an indispensable part of human civilization for thousands of years. Ceramics, which were initially referred to as pottery or fired clay, have evolved into complex, high-performance materials that play a vital role in modern technology and industry. Ceramics encompass a broad range of materials, spanning both traditional pottery and advanced high-tech devices with a diverse array of applications. Advanced ceramics serve as “bricks” for modern electronics, powering devices such smartphones, computers, wearable equipment, electrical vehicles, and telecommunications infrastructure. Piezoelectric ceramics find use in sensors [1,2], actuators [3,4], and ultrasound technology [5,6,7], while dielectric ceramics are crucial for capacitors [8,9] and resonators [10,11,12] in communication systems. Ceramics’ ability to withstand extreme temperatures and harsh conditions makes them ideal for aerospace [13,14] and defense [15,16] applications. Bioceramics find applications in medical innovations, such as implants [17] and dental prosthetics [18]. Ceramics are also pivotal in clean energy conversion (e.g., solid oxide fuel cells [19]) and energy storage (e.g., solid-state batteries [20]). Ceramic substrates [21] in catalytic converters aid in automobiles’ emission control, while ceramic coatings enhance engine performance and durability [22]. Diesel particulate filters [23] made from advanced ceramics reduce harmful vehicle emissions, and ceramic membranes are used for water purification [24].

In materials science and engineering, materials dictate properties, while processing modifies these properties and microstructures, synergistically affecting the final product’s performance. In recent times, the Materials Genome Initiative (MGI) has opened new opportunities for pioneering innovations and advancements in ceramic materials [25,26,27,28,29,30]. This is achieved through the fusion of high-throughput computation, utilizing multiphysics and multiscale modeling [31,32], machine learning [33,34,35], data-driven methodologies [36,37,38], and high-throughput experimental techniques [39,40,41]. The MGI has brought about transformative changes, revolutionizing the way in which these advanced ceramics materials are designed, synthesized, and optimized. However, while the MGI has transformed the landscape of advanced ceramic materials, challenges remain; data quality, integration of experimental and computational approaches, and the need for advanced characterization techniques are areas that demand ongoing attention. The integration of the MGI with additive manufacturing technologies and the exploration of sustainability aspects in ceramic development are also promising avenues for future research.

Along with the innovation of advanced ceramics materials, the convergence of advanced manufacturing techniques with the realm of ceramic materials has paved the way for unprecedented innovation across various industries. Additive manufacturing (AM), or 3D printing, allows for intricate geometries and customized designs that were previously challenging to achieve [42]. Techniques such as stereolithography [43] and binder jetting [44] enable the layer-by-layer deposition of ceramic powders, resulting in complex structures with tailored porosity and properties. This approach has unlocked new avenues for designing ceramic components with enhanced functionalities. Direct ink writing [45] is a precise AM method that utilizes ceramic pastes as “inks”. This technique is particularly valuable in fabricating ceramic scaffolds for tissue engineering, ceramics with graded porosity, and components with optimized mechanical properties. Despite significant advancements in the 3D printing of ceramics, achieving industrial mass production continues to face challenges [46,47]: (1) the sintering and post-processing steps are critical but can lead to warping, shrinkage, and dimensional inaccuracies; (2) achieving a smooth surface finish on printed and sintered ceramics can be challenging due to material properties and printing processes; (3) larger ceramic components are rare due to material brittleness and low expansion coefficients. Thus, to expand 3D printing’s reach and achieve large-scale production of high-quality technical ceramic parts, focusing on material development and precise process control is crucial [48].

Ceramics are commonly produced in furnaces or kilns on a large scale. However, this traditional approach often results in substantial electricity consumption. Particularly in regions where electricity is primarily generated from fossil fuels, this means that ceramic manufacturing can contribute to significant air pollution due to the emissions associated with electricity generation [49]. In the worldwide drive toward sustainability and achieving a carbon-neutral society, advanced sintering techniques such as spark plasma sintering (SPS), field-assisted sintering techniques (FAST), flash sintering (FS), ultra-fast high-temperature sintering (UHS), and cold sintering (CS) have emerged as promising alternatives in ceramics manufacturing [50]. The SPS/FAST methods utilize electric fields and high pressures during the sintering process to aid the densification of ceramic powders [51]. These methods offer advantages such as reduced sintering time, lower energy consumption, and the ability to achieve fine-grained microstructures. The resulting ceramics exhibit enhanced mechanical properties and improved performance. FS is a rapid ceramic processing method in which, when a critical combination of electric field and temperature is reached, a power surge occurs, and the materials densify within seconds without the need for externally applied pressure [52]. This method offers energy savings and improved properties but requires further research for better understanding and control. The UHS method initially uses graphite felt heaters in direct contact with ceramic green bodies [53]. Due to the lack of a large furnace chamber and the low thermal mass of the setup, very high heating rates of several thousands of degrees per second can be achieved. CS is another novel approach that enables the sintering of ceramics at significantly lower temperatures than conventional methods [54]. By using a combination of pressure and a liquid solvent, CS reduces the energy required for densification, making it suitable for heat-sensitive materials and novel ceramic composites. However, most of these advanced sintering technologies are still under investigation, primarily at the laboratory scale. Transitioning sintering methods from the laboratory to actual fabrication demands a crucial criterion: the capability to produce fully sintered products, not just material samples. When applying these technologies industrially, meticulous assessment of microstructure uniformity across the entire component and relevant properties becomes essential. Moreover, the intricacy and expense of the necessary equipment, along with the feasibility of automating the processing steps, necessitate careful consideration [46].

In conclusion, within the realm of ceramic materials science and technology, embracing the transformative potential of advanced ceramics presents both opportunities and challenges. This journey towards sustainability is carving a path toward a more resilient future. The interplay of materials development, advanced manufacturing, and innovative applications is propelling ceramics into a new era.