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Article

Development Pattern of Toppling Deformation Slopes in Western China

by
Xingming Li
1,
Kaiming Cao
2,
Shaoping Huang
2,*,
Ruiming Xing
2 and
Yuanhai Yang
2
1
School of Environment and Engineering, Hubei Land Resources Vocational College, Wuhan 430090, China
2
School of Civil Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430068, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(11), 6596; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116596
Submission received: 24 April 2023 / Revised: 21 May 2023 / Accepted: 24 May 2023 / Published: 29 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Controlled by regional geological background, and affected by human activity and weathering, toppling deformation slopes occur in different regions in China. Based on statistics about domestic toppling deformation slopes and their distribution, the regional geological susceptibility zonation area of toppling deformation slopes was determined. Firstly, a regional geological susceptibility evaluation was conducted according to these toppling deformation slopes, choosing landform, stratigraphic age, seismic intensity and tectonic stress distribution, and the study area was divided into very low, low, medium, high and very high susceptibility areas. Secondly, a geographic position susceptibility evaluation was conducted aimed at different sections of typical rivers in western China and the toppling deformation slopes related to them, and the study area was divided into upstream, midstream and downstream of 11 rivers that were respectively classified into very low, low, high and very high susceptibility areas. Thirdly, based on the results, associations between the toppling deformation factors (lithology, slope height, elevation, horizontal depth and vertical depth) and the distribution of deformation slopes were revealed. Finally, the development regularity was analyzed comprehensively. The results show that the toppling deformation slopes of hydropower projects are more developed in Sichuan, Qinghai and Yunnan provinces of China. With regard to regional geography, besides the Yellow River, both the Lancang River and the Yalong River flow through areas with toppling deformation that are classified as highly susceptible geological zones in all levels. The results of this study can be used as references for site selection plans in hydropower projects.

1. Introduction

With the increasing frequency and enlargement of human engineering activities, a number of anti-dipped slopes have resulted in failure of hydropower projects, mine projects and highway projects. At the same time, failures of anti-dipped slopes can result in serious economic losses and hazards due to long-runout and high-speed landslides [1,2]. In China, there are several typical examples, such as the slope to the south of the powerhouse of Tianshengqiao hydropower station [3], a landslide in Xikou County on Huaxi Mountain [4], slope deformation in an open pit mine [5] and the Huanglashi landslide group in Badong County [6]. In recent years, with the rapid development of hydropower projects in western China, a number of toppling deformation slopes have been reported at hydropower stations on different rivers, including a slope in an abutment of the Jingping I hydropower station [7], a deformation in an abutment of a hydropower station on the Lancang River [8] and the toppling slope at the Qilingsi hydropower station on the Bailong River [9]. Examples from other countries include the Frank landslide in Canada [10], the northern Vajont landslide in Italy [11] (Mueller 1968) and the Ghurgar rockfall in Peru [12]. Owing to diverse causes, geological engineering concerns about toppling deformations have gradually become major issues in the field.
Until now, most studies on toppling deformations, especially in hydropower projects, have focused on the evolutionary process [13,14,15,16], deformation mechanisms [17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28] and development characteristics [29,30,31,32] of single toppling deformation slopes. The development regularity and susceptibility of toppling deformations are rarely studied from the angle of regional geological conditions and geographic position. Less has been achieved aiming at connections between the development factors (lithology, slope height, slope angle, elevation, horizontal and vertical depth) and the regional development regularity.
In this work, based on the above, the susceptibility of the toppling deformations in western China is analyzed from the aspect of regional geology and geographic position in China, helping us understand the regional development regularity and providing references for hydropower station site selection.

2. Toppling Deformation Statistics

Summarizing the toppling deformation cases in engineering projects in China, the carriers of the toppling slopes are divided into four categories: mine slopes [33,34], highway slopes [35,36,37], architecture slopes [38] and hydropower slopes.
Hydropower toppling deformation slopes comprise the largest proportion and are distributed widely along the Yalong River basin [14,39,40,41,42,43,44,45], the Lancang River basin [8,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57], the Yellow River basin [19,58,59,60,61,62,63,64], the Dadu River basin [65,66,67,68], the Nu River basin [69], the Min River basin [70], the Bailong River basin [71,72], the Tao River basin [73,74], the Kezier River basin [75,76], the Xixi River basin and a river basin in Xinjiang [77].
All of the cases above (Table A1) were collected through a literature review. The toppling deformation slopes in China are mainly concentrated in western hydropower projects, while a few occur in mine projects and highway projects. Figure 1 is the distribution map of all statistical cases.

3. Regional Geological Susceptibility

The development of toppling deformation is related to various factors, in which regional geology background is vital. Regional geological conditions vary dramatically in such a vast territory in China, which therefore leads to the development of toppling deformation slopes from time to time in many places, especially in the southwest of the country.

3.1. Selection of Factors

To study the features of toppling deformation development and reveal the connection between distribution and regional geological background, taking the relative basic data we had into consideration, four typical regional geological factors were identified:
(1)
Landform type can provide information on the size and scale of landform features and how this size and scale might affect the amounts of energy available for geomorphic, pedogenic and hydrological processes. Landform types provide context that can be used to inform and improve the further sub-division of the landscape into landform elements [78], and thus can be used for further research on the development of toppling deformation.
(2)
Stratigraphic age can reflect the geological history and has important guiding significance for the study of slope stability and deformation mechanisms. The rock properties, structural characteristics and depositional environment of different stratigraphic ages may affect the stability and deformation characteristics of the slope. At the same time, the physical properties of rocks in different ages are different, including density, compressive strength, shear strength, etc. These factors will affect the stability of the slope. In the division of stratigraphic age, there are certain contact surfaces and contact zones between different rock layers. The geomechanical characteristics of these areas are among the main sources of slope instability and deformation.
(3)
Seismic intensity is considered a typical regional geological factor when analyzing the regional geological distribution law of toppling deformation development, because strong geological tectonic activity can cause significant ground shaking, which can trigger landslides and other types of ground instability. Seismic activity can also affect the strength and stability of rock formations, leading to toppling deformation. Therefore, understanding the seismic history and potential for future seismic activity is critical when assessing the risk of toppling deformation in a particular region. Seismic intensity is a quantitative measure of the level of ground shaking that occurred during past earthquakes and can be used to estimate the potential for future seismic events in the area. By analyzing seismic intensity data along with other geological factors, such as slope angle and dip angle, the regional geological distribution of the toppling deformation development can be better understood.
(4)
Tectonic stress distribution is a typical regional geological factor when analyzing the regional geological distribution law of toppling deformation development because tectonic forces play a significant role in shaping the Earth’s surface. Tectonic stresses can lead to the development of geological structures such as faults, folds and joints, which can affect the stability of rock formations and increase the risk of toppling deformation. In regions affected by high tectonic stress, such as those located near active fault zones, the likelihood of rock mass instability induced by tectonic stress increases, and the depth of slope toppling deformation significantly increases [55]. By studying the distribution of tectonic stress in a region, areas with higher risk of toppling deformation can be identified, which can further our understanding of the features of toppling deformation development.
The above four factors were chosen to analyze the regional geological distribution regularity of the toppling deformation slopes. The line from the Altun Mountains to the Yinshan Mountains and the area from latitudes 25° to 38° N in China were chosen as the study zones. Zoning maps of the four factors are shown in Figure 2.
In Figure 2a, showing the China landform zoning map, the study zone is divided into 24 areas including five grades from A to E based on the altitude of different landform types (A1 to E8 respectively represent: east Shandong low mountains and hills, north China–east China plain, Ningzhen plain and hills, low–middle mountains of Zhejiang-Fujian, Huaiyang low mountains, plain and low mountains along the midstream of the Yangtze River, low–middle mountains of Guangxi–Hunan–Jiangxi, low–middle mountains and plains of Guangdong–Guangxi, middle mountain basin of Shanxi, Hetao–Erdos middle plain, loess plateau, middle plain of Xinjiang–Gansu, middle mountains of Hubei–Guizhou–Yunnan, low basin of Sichuan, middle–high mountain basins of southwest Sichuan and middle Yunnan, middle–high mountains of southwest Yunnan, high mountain plains of Altun Mountains and Qilian Mountains, middle–high basin of Qaidam–Huanghuang, ultrahigh mountains with ultra large or large fluctuations in height in Kunlun Mountains, high mountains with ultra large or large fluctuations in height in Hengduan Mountains, high mountains and valleys with medium or large fluctuations in height in the upper–midstream river, moundy high mountain plains at the riverhead, lake basin of the Qiangtang plateau, high–ultrahigh mountains with ultra large or large fluctuations in height in the Himalayas).
In Figure 2b, the China geological map, the study zone is divided into six areas, including Quaternary (A), Tertiary (B), Mesozoic (C), Paleozoic (D), Proterozoic (E) and Archaeozoic (F).
In Figure 2c, the China seismic intensity map, the studied zone is divided into five areas with different seismic intensity presented as grades <6 (A), 6 (B), 7 (C), 8 (D) and >9 (E) [79].
Figure 2d is based on the modern tectonic stress field map of China and its adjacent areas (Figure 3) [80].
In China, there are different features of the tectonic stress field in the west and the east. In the west, the tectonic stress field is produced by the extrusion from the Indian plate in the NNE direction, while in the east, the tectonic stress field is produced by the extrusion from the Pacific plate in the NWW direction. The tectonic stress decreases to a certain degree and then increases again from west to east. The inflection point is approximately located in a north–south seismic belt near longitude 105° E. The division of units merely affects the precision of an assessment result in the susceptibility evaluation of regional geological hazards. Therefore, Figure 2d can be mapped based on the simplification of Figure 3 and the combination of tectonic stress features in China (tectonic stress decreases from A to H and increases from H to N).

3.2. Susceptibility Evaluation

3.2.1. Introduction of AHP

The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was proposed by the American operations researcher T. L. Saaty in the 1970s [81]. Its basic approach is to divide a complicated studied object into multiple hierarchies (scheme hierarchy, criteria hierarchy and target hierarchy).
The main steps of the AHP are as follows:
(1)
Construct the hierarchy structure, analyze the relationship among factors in the studied object, and divide factors in different properties into different hierarchies according to their subordination.
(2)
Judge the construction of the matrix (based on the measurement standards of Saaty, the matrix is developed by comparing the significance of every two factors in the same hierarchy to the main factor in upper hierarchy, finally forming the matrix in accordance with the quantification standard).
(3)
Check the consistency (the logical reasonability of the matrix needs to be assured).

3.2.2. Susceptibility Zoning

(1)
Scores of four single factors.
When the studied areas undergo a susceptibility evaluation of toppling deformation slopes, this requires prior specification of the landform types, stratigraphic age, seismic intensity and tectonic stress distribution as four evaluation factors. Scores should be given to the hazards’ development state in different areas of the four factors. Based on the area density of the toppling deformation slopes, the development frequency P is introduced. Assume that for each factor i, the number of toppling deformation slopes is nij in area j, whose internal area is Sij. The development density ρ i j and frequency of the area P can be defined as:
ρ i j = n i j S i j
P = ρ i j ρ 0
In the formula, ρ 0 is the area density of the whole zone.
In ArcGIS, after importing a single-factor hierarchy and the deformation slopes’ hierarchy, the development frequencies can be calculated through vector superposition combining Equations (1) and (2). The development frequencies are used as the scores of all areas (Figure 4).
(2)
Applying AHP
The overall assessment index is defined as K, the target hierarchy of the hierarchy structure model, and the four factors belong to the scheme hierarchy. The structure model is established as follows:
Based on the hierarchical chart, the index K can be represented as:
K = ∑ i = 1 n a i x i
where x i are scores of factor i (i = 1, 2, 3 or 4), and a i is the weight of factor i (i = 1, 2, 3 or 4).
After constructing the judgment matrix in the scheme layer, the maximum eigenvalue and the corresponding eigenvector can be calculated in Matlab: λ m a x , m = (0.3729, 0.4208, 0.3249, 0.7585).
Consistency check for the matrix is as follows:
C I = λ m a x 4 − 1
R I = C I 0.9 = 0.0349 < 0.1
The judgment matrix possesses sufficient consistency; therefore, the weights of landform, stratigraphic age, seismic intensity and tectonic stress distribution are 0.1987, 0.2242, 0.1731 and 0.4041, respectively.
Based on the results above and Equation (3), the natural breakpoint method is used to divide the studied zone into areas of 5 grades (Table 1), and the regional geology susceptibility zoning map of the toppling deformation slopes is developed in Figure 5.

3.3. Susceptibility Result Analysis

According to Figure 5, areas of grades 1–5 account for 32.33%, 20.74%, 22.97%, 16.52% and 7.43% of the whole area, respectively (Figure 6).
From grade 1 to grade 5, toppling deformation slopes account for 5.88% (2), 11.76% (4), 5.88% (2), 29.41% (10) and 47.06% (16) of all slopes, respectively (Figure 6).

4. Geographic Position Susceptibility Zoning

Figure 5 shows that most toppling deformation slopes are located in western China, especially in the southwest. Toppling deformation slopes are much more likely to occur in those areas than others, and most of them develop at hydropower stations. Therefore, among 34 deformation samples listed above in Figure 5, only 26 remain after ruling out non-hydropower projects and slopes without detailed information. The zoning areas include 11 rivers, and toppling deformation slopes are unevenly distributed in different segments of each river. A map of the 11 typical rivers and 26 deformation positions is shown in Figure 7.
The remaining toppling deformation slopes show a significant diversity in distribution in terms of numbers and density along the main streams and branches. To further study the distribution regularity of the toppling slopes in different reaches in those rivers and better understand the distribution regularity of toppling slopes in different segments of the main rivers, susceptibility zoning was developed for the 11 rivers, using the information amount method outline below.

4.1. Introduction of the Information Amount Method

The basic concept of the information amount method is whether geological hazards occur or not, and the probability of their occurrence is related to the information amount obtained in different areas, which means the occurrence and its probability can be revealed by the information amount [82].
In the basic theory, the information amount of event H can be calculated by Equation (6) as:
I x i , H = ln P x i H P x i
where P x i H is the probability of event xi when event H occurs, and P x i is the probability of x i .
The total information amount can be calculated by superposition of the information amounts of single factors.

4.2. Susceptibility Evaluation

4.2.1. Calculation of Information Amount

Based on 26 toppling deformation slopes, the line density of the slopes developed along the river can be taken as the information amount:
I x i , H = ln n i / l i N / L
L is the total length of 11 rivers, l i is the length of a river in the studied area, N is the total amount of toppling deformation slopes; N i is the amount of all toppling deformation slopes in related river reaches in the studied area; ni is the amount of toppling deformation slopes in one river reach in the studied area; n i / l i is the distribution line density of toppling slopes developed in one river reach; N / L is the overall distribution line density of toppling slopes.

4.2.2. Information Amount Zoning

When evaluating the zonation of toppling deformation slopes, two aspects are studied: (1) zonation aiming at the overall information amount: point densities of toppling deformation are different in different rivers; (2) zonation aiming at the information amount of typical rivers: point densities of toppling deformation are different in the upstream, midstream and downstream of a typical river. Considering the basic theory of the information method, when the information amount of the whole river or a segment is higher than 0, equal to 0 or lower than 0, the development level of slopes is higher than, equal to or lower than the general level in the studied area. When the information amount is −∞, it means that no toppling deformation slope develops.
Based on Equation (7), the information amount of every river and its upstream, midstream and downstream can be calculated. Different reaches of all rivers are divided into four grades (Table 2), and the information amount zoning map is shown in Figure 8. Considering the three typical rivers (the Yalong, Lancang and Yellow Rivers), the information amounts are shown in Table 3.

4.3. Susceptibility Result Analysis

According to the development features (lithology, slope angle, slope height, elevation, horizontal depth and vertical depth) of toppling deformation slopes, the connection between the features and the susceptibility grade of the area can be studied.
The lithology of slopes is classified into hard rock (H), soft rock (S) and hard + soft rock (S + H). Based on the statistical data, slope angles of toppling slopes are generally more than 35°, and slope angles are classified into five sections (0–35°, 35–40°, 40–45°, 45–50°, 50–55°; no toppling slope with a slope angle over 55° has been discovered). Most of the toppling slopes are higher than 100 m; therefore, slope heights are classified into five grades (0–100 m, 100–200 m, 200–300 m, 300–400 m, >400 m). According to the three-gradient terrain of China, elevations are classified into 7 sections (0–500 m, 500–1000 m, 1000–1500 m, 1500–2000 m, 2000–2500 m, 2500–3000 m and 3000–3500 m). Based on the results of research on toppling deformation slopes, horizontal depths are often deeper than 50 m and vertical depths are often deeper than 30 m; thus, horizontal depths are classified into five grades (0–50 m, 50–100 m, 100–150 m, 150–200 m and >200 m) and vertical depths are classified into four grades (0–30 m, 30–60 m, 60–90 m and >90 m).
Analyzed results are shown in Figure 9. Only areas with very low (1 in Figure 9) or high susceptibility (3 in Figure 9) and toppling deformation slopes in those areas are analyzed.
Regarding lithology, there are four hard + soft rock slopes in grade 2 and one hard rock slope in grade 4. For slope angle, there are four toppling slopes (23°, 44°, 45° and 50°) in grade 2 and one (41°) in grade 4. With regard to slope height, there are four (150 m, 240 m, 340 m and 400 m) in grade 2 and one (546 m) in grade 4. For elevation, there are four (2077 m, 2160 m, 2190 m and 2230 m) in grade 2 and one (1970 m) in grade 4. Regarding horizontal depth, there are two (65 m, 120 m) in grade 2 and one (50 m) in grade 4, and for vertical depth, there is only one in grade 2 as well as in grade 4. Both of them are 35 m in depth.

5. Comprehensive Susceptibility Analysis

Through comprehensive consideration of the 11 rivers and regional geological susceptibility zoning maps, and projection of the areas with different susceptibilities to the rivers, the susceptibility based on regional geology in different parts of 11 rivers can be presented. The projection result is the susceptibility–rivers–hazards comprehensive zoning map (Figure 5).
Figure 5 illustrates the following information:
(1)
Regional geology: in the west of Sichuan basin, high mountains with ultra large or large fluctuations in height in the Hengduan Mountains are mainly in Mesozoic formation, tectonic stress is relatively concentrated, and seismic intensity grades of 8 and over are commonly occurring areas with very high susceptibility of toppling deformation slopes.
(2)
Regional geography: the proportions of susceptibility grades of the three typical rivers are shown in Figure 10. The Lancang and Yalong Rivers flow through very high susceptibility areas. Due to the hydropower development in the upstream of the Yellow River, the susceptibility there tends to be higher. Most of the upper reaches of the Lancang River and the middle reaches of the Yalong River are in very high susceptibility areas. The susceptibility of the lower reaches of the Yalong River is higher than that of its upper reaches.

6. Conclusions

A regional geological susceptibility evaluation and a geographic position susceptibility evaluation were conducted using the analytic hierarchy process and the information amount method according to statistical toppling deformation slopes in China based on ArcGIS. The main conclusions are as follows:
(1)
Most toppling deformation slopes in hydropower projects are located in Sichuan, Qinghai and Yunnan. Most toppling deformation slopes (in a small amount) in highway and mine projects mainly develop in Sichuan, Liaoning, Anhui, Jilin and elsewhere.
(2)
According to scores of regional geological evaluations, the study zone is divided into very low, low, medium, high and very high susceptibility areas. According to the information amount in the geographic position evaluation, the upstream, midstream and downstream of the 11 rivers are respectively classified into very low, low, high and very high susceptibility areas.
(3)
In the west of the Sichuan basin, high mountains with ultra large or large fluctuations in height in the Hengduan Mountains in Mesozoic formation, concentrated tectonic stress, and seismic intensity grades of 8 and over characterize areas of extremely high susceptibility. In those areas, the undulating landform with high seismic intensity grades and thin rock layer in Mesozoic formation are conditions for the occurrence of toppling deformation slopes.
(4)
The midstream of the Yalong River, the upper-midstream of the Lancang River, the upstream of the Yellow River, the upstream of the Dadu River and the upstream of the Min River are geographically in very high susceptibility areas. Relatively more toppling deformation develops in the midstream of the Yalong River, the upper-midstream of the Lancang River and the upstream of the Yellow River.
The results of this study can be used as references for the planning and site selection of hydropower stations. The amount of statistical deformation slopes is limited, and knowledge in this area can be further deepened by considering the complex influencing factors of toppling deformation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.L. and S.H.; methodology, X.L.; software, X.L.; validation, X.L. and S.H.; formal analysis, X.L.; investigation, K.C. and R.X.; resources, X.L.; data curation, K.C. and Y.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L.; writing—review and editing, X.L., S.H. and K.C.; visualization, X.L.; supervision, X.L.; project administration, X.L. and S.H.; funding acquisition, X.L. and S.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by technical and scientific project of Chengdu Engineering Corporation Limited, Power Construction Corporation of China (grant number P225-2014); Ph.D. research start-up fund of Hubei University of Technology, China: Study on the evolution law of THMC characteristic parameters and constitutive model of solidified marine clay (grant number XJ2021000502); Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province, China: Spatial-temporal dynamic evolution mechanism of soil moisture in ecological protection slopes under rainfall conditions (grant number 2022CFB833); Young and middle-aged talent project of the Science and Technology Research Program of the Hubei Provincial Department of Education, China: Experimental study on the mechanism of buried anti-slide piles and plants synergistic slope protection under rainfall conditions (grant number Q20275408); The Open Fund of Badong National Observation and Research Station of Geohazards.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy concerns.

Acknowledgments

Sincere thanks to Engineering Research Center of Rock-Soil Drilling & Excavation and Protection, Ministry of Education and the Open Fund of Badong National Observation and Research Station of Geohazards.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table
Table A1. Toppling deformation statistical table (hydropower projects, mine projects, slope projects).
Table A1. Toppling deformation statistical table (hydropower projects, mine projects, slope projects).
NumberPositionName
1Muli County in SichuanThe deformation slope in Jinping-I hydropower station
2Jinchuan County in SichuanThe deformation slope in Jinchuan hydropower station
3Guide County in QinghaiA slope in the upstream of Yellow River
4Xinghai County in Qinghai1–6# toppling slopes in Cihaxia hydropower station
5Jinchuan County in SichuanThe slope at the entrance of Jinchuan highway tunnel
6Guide County in QinghaiThe deformation slope in Laxiwa hydropower station
7Southern part of QinghaiA large toppling deformation slope in the upstream of the Yellow River
8Diqing County in Yunnan1–4# toppling slopes in a hydropower station in the Lancang River
9Diqing County in YunnanThe deformation slope in Lidi hydropower station
10Wen County in GansuA deformation slope in a step power station in the Bailong River
11Jinchuan County in SichuanA deformation slope in a hydropower station in the Dadu River
12Xinlong County in SichuanA deformation slope in a hydropower station in the Yalong River
13Li County in SichuanThe Erguxi highway tunnel slope in a tributary of the Min River
14Xingshan County in HubeiThe deformation slope at the Xingshan County archive
15Xunhua County in QinghaiThe Gushiqun toppling slope in Gongboxia hydropower station
16Wen County in GansuThe toppling slope in Qilinsi hydropower station
17Hanyuan County in Sichuan1–2# toppling slopes in Pubugou hydropower station
18Luoyang City in Henan1–2# toppling slopes in Xiaolangdi hydropower station
19Ganzi County in Sichuan1–2# toppling slopes in Xinlong hydropower station
20Luqu County in GansuThe powerhouse slope in Duosongduo hydropower station
21Heishui County in SichuanThe toppling slope in Maoergai hydropower station in the Heishui River
22Xinghai County in QinghaiThe toppling slope in Yangqu hydropower station
23Diqing County in YunnanA toppling slope in a hydropower station in the Lancang River
24Yunlong County in Yunnan1–2# toppling slopes in a hydropower station in the Lancang River
25Huaying City in SichuanThe deformation slope in the Zhaozixiu Mountain
26Fengqing County in YunnanThe toppling slope in the left bank of Xiaowan hydropower station
27Diqing County in Yunnan1–2# toppling slopes in Wulonglong hydropower station in the Lancang River
28Ganzi County in SichuanThe landslide in the Ma River
29Wannan Mountain in Anhui1–4# toppling deformation slopes
30Wuxi County in ChongqingA bank slope in Zhongliang reservoir
31Chayu County in Tibet1# toppling deformation slope in Emi hydropower station
32Lanping County in Yunnan1–2# deformation slopes at the left abutment of Huangdeng hydropower station
33Ganzi County in SichuanThe water-intake slope in a hydropower station in the Yalong River
34Ganzi County in Sichuan1–3# deformation slopes in Geni hydropower station

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Applsci 13 06596 g001 550
Figure 1. Distribution map of toppling deformations.
Figure 1. Distribution map of toppling deformations.
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Figure 2. Zoning maps of each factor: (a) landform zoning; (b) stratigraphic age zoning; (c) seismic intensity zoning; (d) tectonic stress zoning.
Figure 2. Zoning maps of each factor: (a) landform zoning; (b) stratigraphic age zoning; (c) seismic intensity zoning; (d) tectonic stress zoning.
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Figure 3. Modern tectonic stress field map of China and its adjacent areas: 1—relative movement vectors of plates; 2—movement and relative movement vectors and rates (mm/a) of the plates to Eurasian plate (Siberia plate); 3—national borderlines; 4—plate boundaries; 5—trace lines of maximum principal stress; 6—trace lines of minimum principal stress (tensile stress).
Figure 3. Modern tectonic stress field map of China and its adjacent areas: 1—relative movement vectors of plates; 2—movement and relative movement vectors and rates (mm/a) of the plates to Eurasian plate (Siberia plate); 3—national borderlines; 4—plate boundaries; 5—trace lines of maximum principal stress; 6—trace lines of minimum principal stress (tensile stress).
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Figure 4. Score zoning maps of four factors: (a) landform types factor zoning; (b) stratigraphic age factor zoning; (c) seismic intensity factor zoning; (d) tectonic stress factor zoning.
Figure 4. Score zoning maps of four factors: (a) landform types factor zoning; (b) stratigraphic age factor zoning; (c) seismic intensity factor zoning; (d) tectonic stress factor zoning.
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Figure 5. Regional geology susceptibility zoning map of toppling deformations.
Figure 5. Regional geology susceptibility zoning map of toppling deformations.
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Figure 6. Proportions of areas and amount of deformation in every grade.
Figure 6. Proportions of areas and amount of deformation in every grade.
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Figure 7. Geographic position map of rivers and toppling deformations.
Figure 7. Geographic position map of rivers and toppling deformations.
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Figure 8. Information amount zoning of rivers.
Figure 8. Information amount zoning of rivers.
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Figure 9. Distribution of toppling deformations with different (a) lithology; (b) slope angle; (c) slope height; (d) elevation; (e) horizontal depth and (f) vertical depth.
Figure 9. Distribution of toppling deformations with different (a) lithology; (b) slope angle; (c) slope height; (d) elevation; (e) horizontal depth and (f) vertical depth.
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Figure 10. Proportions of lengths in every grade in three typical rivers.
Figure 10. Proportions of lengths in every grade in three typical rivers.
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Table
Table 1. Regional geology susceptibility grading table.
Table 1. Regional geology susceptibility grading table.
GradeDescription
1Very low susceptibility area
2Low susceptibility area
3Medium susceptibility area
4High susceptibility area
5Very high susceptibility area
Table
Table 2. Geographical position susceptibility grading table.
Table 2. Geographical position susceptibility grading table.
GradeDescription
1Very low susceptibility area
2Low susceptibility area
3high susceptibility area
4Very high susceptibility area
Table
Table 3. Information amount at upper, middle and lower reaches of three typical rivers. (There are only upper reaches and lower reaches in the Lancang River.).
Table 3. Information amount at upper, middle and lower reaches of three typical rivers. (There are only upper reaches and lower reaches in the Lancang River.).
RiverInformation Amount
Upper ReachesMiddle ReachesLower Reaches
Yalong−∞1.7918−∞
Lancang0.2824—−0.9067
Yellow0.3464−0.5910−∞
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Li, X.; Cao, K.; Huang, S.; Xing, R.; Yang, Y. Development Pattern of Toppling Deformation Slopes in Western China. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 6596. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116596

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Li X, Cao K, Huang S, Xing R, Yang Y. Development Pattern of Toppling Deformation Slopes in Western China. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(11):6596. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116596

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Li, Xingming, Kaiming Cao, Shaoping Huang, Ruiming Xing, and Yuanhai Yang. 2023. "Development Pattern of Toppling Deformation Slopes in Western China" Applied Sciences 13, no. 11: 6596. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116596

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