Anthocyanin Delivery Systems: A Critical Review of Recent Research Findings
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Methodology
1.2. ACN Interactions with Wall Materials
2. Bio-Based Materials Used for the Stabilization of ACNs
2.1. Pectin
2.2. Proteins
2.3. Lipids
2.4. Biopolymer Complexes
3. ACN Delivery Systems
3.1. Nanoparticles
3.2. Liposomes
3.3. Emulsions
3.4. Biopolymer Particles
3.5. Copigmentation
4. Comparison of Formulation Techniques
5. Conclusions, and Future Trends
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ACNs | Anthocyanins |
OH | Hydroxyl group |
O-CH3 | Methoxyl |
ADME | Absorption, metabolism, distribution, and excretion |
EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
CH | Chitosan |
C3G | Cyanidin-3-glucoside |
WPI | Whey Protein Isolate |
CDs | Cyclodextrin |
SLNs | Solid Lipid Nanoparticles |
W/O/W | Water-in-Oil-in-Water |
NLCs | Nanostructured Lipid Carriers |
β-CD | β-cyclodextrins |
EHD | Electrohydrodynamic |
CS | Chondroitin sulfate |
BPNs | Biopolymeric nanoparticles |
PMPs | Protein-mimicking polypeptides |
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Method | Source | Encapsulation Material | Study Outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Spray drying | Grape juice | Maltodextrin, whey proteins, soybean | 120 days of ACNs stability at 35 °C using soybean with maltodextrin (10% degradation) | [71] |
Pomegranate powder | Gum arabic and modified starch | Higher ACNs retention (60%) | [72] | |
Jussara | Starch, inulin, and Maltodextrin | ACNs color maintained together with light stability at 50 °C for 38 days | [73] | |
Barberry | Gum arabica, Maltodextrin, and gelatin | Microencapsulation efficiency of 92.8% was achieved during the study | [74] | |
Grape pomace | Maltodextrins | 11 days’ half-life stability of encapsulated ACNs into apple pure matrix at 35 °C | [75] | |
Jussara | Gum arabica, modified starch, whey proteins, or Soy protein isolate | The use of the two polysaccharides with either one of the proteins resulted in high encapsulation efficiency and ACNs retention | [76] | |
Purple sweet potato | MC grafted with cinnamic acid | Maltodextrins with cinnamic acid improved ACNs stability over 30 days’ storage time in comparison to maltodextrin or free ACNs | [77] | |
Blueberry | Whey proteins | Encapsulated blueberry ACNs were more stable than blueberry extract | [78] | |
Purple maize | Modified, normal, and waxy maize starches | Acetylated starches had superior encapsulating power for ACNs | [79] | |
Black raspberry juice | Maltodextrin, fenugreek gum, and microcrystalline cellulose | Gum and cellulose increased the overall properties of the powders and ACN concentration | [80] | |
Roselle extract | Maltodextrin, pectin, gelatin, Carboxy methyl cellulose, whey proteins, carrageenan, and Gum arabica | Pectin showed better retention and release, throughout the storage period | [81] | |
Blueberry | Maltodextrin and Gum arabica | The use of an ultrasonic nozzle better protected the blueberry bioactive than the conventional nozzle and had similar results for AA and total ACN contents | [82,83] | |
Jussara pulp | Gelatin, Gum arabica, maltodextrin | Optimization study pointed to 165 °C and 5% of carrier material as the best for ACNs retention. At 40 °C and 75% of relative humidity, ACNs half-life was 14 days when coated with GA | [84] | |
Saffron anthocyanin | β-glucan and β-cyclodextrin | Higher concentrations of ACNs were protected from adverse stomach conditions by encapsulation | [85] | |
Roselle extract | β-cyclodextrin, soy protein isolate, gelatin | Increased the thermal stability and encapsulation efficiency by 99% using the composite wall materials of purified roselle extract | [86] | |
Freeze-drying | Raspberry | Gum arabica and Soy proteins | Increased retention of ACNs by 36% | [30] |
Milk-Blackberry pulp | Maltodextrin and modified starch | High anthocyanin content and increased antioxidant capacity | [87] | |
Sour cherry | Soy proteins and whey proteins | SP showed higher encapsulation efficiency and higher anthocyanin content | [88] | |
Grape extract | Acacia gum and whey proteins | Improved encapsulation efficiency of ACN | [89] | |
Wine grape pomace | Gum arabica and Maltodextrin | Samples had 91% encapsulation efficiency | [90] | |
Saffron petal | Cress seed gum, Gum arabica, Maltodextrin | Cress seed gum had the same results for ACNs stability as other conventional wall materials however, lower color constancy | [91] | |
Cherry juice | Maltodextrin and Gum arabica | ACN retention was 90%, in comparison to liquid juice (11%) | [92] | |
Electrospraying | Black carrot extract | Gelatin and chitosan | Faster release in the acetic acid medium with greater encapsulation efficiency | [16] |
Ultrasonication | Anthocyanin | Lecithin | Sustained release and high stability of anthocyanin | [93] |
Electrospinning | Sour cherry extract | Lactalbumin and gelatin | Increased bioaccessibility and stability of ACNs | [94] |
Copigmentation | Blueberry | Chondroitin sulfate and kappa carrageenan | Effective protection against degradation at low pH | [95] |
Anthocyanin | Guar gum | High encapsulation efficiency and high kinetic stability | [57] | |
Blueberry and Elderberry | Chondroitin and chitosan | Improved chemical stability and stable color of anthocyanin | [96] | |
ACNs extract | Gum arabica | GA coating increased color stability and half-life of ACNs at high temperatures | [97] | |
Bilberry | Dextran sulfate | During storage in dark conditions at 4 °C, ACN content decreased by 12% as compared to extract (35%) | [98] | |
Supercritical CO2 | Bilberry | Soy lecithin | Higher stability and encapsulation efficiency | [99] |
Microwave | Roselle and Red Cabbage | Maltodextrin | Encapsulated ACNs were able to improve margarine stability against phase separation and oxidation | [100] |
Extrusion | Haskap berries | Calcium-alginate | The increased residence time of microparticle gels in the stomach suggests a more controlled release of ACNs | [101,102] |
Clitoria ternatea petal flower extract | Alginate and calcium chloride | Thermal stability with inhibition of carbohydrate and lipid digestion | [26] | |
Evaporation | Cyanidin-3-glycoside extract | N-trimethyl chitosan-coated liposomes | Coating ACNs increase the antioxidant activity in rat’s cornea, with higher transepithelial transport | [103] |
Gelation | Jussara extract | Alginate, chitosan, whey proteins, gelatin | Alginate hydrogel beads and chitosan showed greater antioxidant capacity [higher protection] as compared to WP and gelatin | [104] |
Black rice | Maltodextrin, Gum arabica, whey proteins | Whey protein isolates exhibited a greater release of anthocyanin in GIT with enhanced antioxidant activity | [105] | |
Mulberry | Alginate and chitosan beads | High ACN encapsulation efficiency | [106] | |
Purple rice bran | Pectin, zein, and whey proteins | Pectin-WP and Pectin-zein-WP capsules have the potential of slowly releasing delivery systems for ACNs | [107] | |
Blueberry | Chitosan/cellulose Chitosan/sodium tripolyphosphate | Cellulose nanocrystals had better ACN recovery and stability at pH 7 than sodium tripolyphosphate | [108] | |
Sol-gel technique | Black carrot | Silica (drug delivery system) | Nanoparticles with ACNs were able to inhibit 87.9% of neuroblastoma cells | [109] |
Coacervation | Black rice | Gelatin-acacia gum and chitosan- Carboxymethylcellulose | Microcapsules can be applied for incorporating ACNs into nutraceuticals for controlled release | [110] |
Blueberry | Chitosan | Chitosan was able to stabilize ACNs after simulated GI fluid assay and storage | [111] | |
Purple sweet potato | Konjac glucomannan | Extra chitosan oligosaccharides coat was needed to stabilize microspheres against stomach conditions and to release ACNs in the small intestine [in vitro] | [112] | |
Inclusion Complexes | Bignay and duhat extract | β-cyclodextrin | Increased encapsulation efficiency and possess enzyme inhibitory properties | [113] |
Yeast mediated encapsulation | Chokeberry ACNs | Saccharomyces cerevisiae [yeast] | Yeast turned the ACNs efficiency around by 55% | [114] |
Methods Involved in the ACNs Stability | The Mechanism Involved in the Stability of ACNs | Advantages | Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Stability | Food Applications | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Blanching | Blanching helps to balance the substitution of the B-ring and the corresponding susceptibility to oxidation. Blanching can help to restore the color of malvidin and peonidin-based ACNs | The total ACNs concentration did not significantly affect by blanching. The overall proportion of polymeric color was found to be increased by 8% by blanching | Glycosylation during the blanching affects thermal stability. Pentosides are found less stable than hexoses in blanched chokeberries | It can ensure the thermal stability of ACNs in blueberries [Vaccinium corymbosum]. A total of 11% of ACNs concentration increased compared to juices from blanched fruits to non-blanched fruits, particularly berries | [139] |
High-Pressure Processing (HPP) | HPP tends to promote minor changes in the ACNs content of fruits under ambient temperatures. | The increased pressure during HPP treatment leads to condensation reactions. | High temperature (>70 °C) during HPP can decrease the thermal stability at high pressure. | Application of moderate temperatures (45 °C) during HPP treatment results in increases in total ACNs concentration (about 9%) in blueberry juice and fruits. | [140,141] |
Copigmentation with coloring compounds | ACNs can be stabilized using intramolecular, intermolecular and self-association, co-pigmentation techniques. Vertical stacking and copigmentation lead to enhancement of the overall color intensity of ACNs | Flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, amino acids, purines, and polysaccharides are molecules used for the ACNs stabilization using copigmentation | Major factors affecting ACNs stability are type, the concentration of both ACNs and copigments, temperature, pH, and solvent type. pH is the most promising factor affecting the ACNs stability | With the pyruvate, ACNs tend to form pyranoanthocyanins and enhance the pH stability of the ACNs color | [142] |
Copigmentation with flavonoids | ACNs can be stabilized by copigmenting with colorless flavonoids of plant cells | At low pH (<3), during in vitro analysis, ACNs tend to be redder and more stable, whereas colorless in a weakly acidic [pH 3–6] environment | At high pH (>6) the ACNs become unstable. The increased pH reduces the ACNs stability and promotes degradation | Purple sweet potato extract (PSPE) can be stabilized by changing the pH under 37 °C and its use can be increased to develop as healthy foods and drinks rich in ACNs at low pH | [143,144] |
Copigmentation with metal ions | ACNs are composed of o-dihydroxy groups in their B-ring that can be stabilized by conjugating with various metal ions chelates. The promising metal ions are Mg2+, K, Fe3+, Al3+, Cu2+, Sn2+ and Mo2+, which on conjugation with ACNs develop blue color | Co-pigmentation of ACNs with metal ions also reduced the metal ion toxicity | The interaction between o-di-hydroxyl ACNs and metal ions occurs under pH 5 | In black carrots, orange juice, and red wines, ACNs were stabilized by forming the pyranoanthocyanins with metal ions. The blue color in cabbage is stabilized by the interaction between ACNs and Mo | [5,145,146,147,148,149] |
Copigmentation with a methoxy group | The hydroxyl and methoxyl groups availability also promotes ACNs under neutral pH | The copigmentation of ACNs with the methoxy group causes acylation that improves the ACNs stability | in a neutral environment, ACNs stabilized by increasing the methylation in the B ring | Monoglycosides and di-glycoside compounds showed more tendency o of stabilization by avoiding the degradation of unstable intermediates into phenols of aldehydes | [150] |
Copigmentation with whey protein | The fruits-derived ACNs including grape, purple corn, or black carrot can be stabilized by adding the preheated or native whey protein (WP) solutions in the dark at 4 °C for 4 weeks. | Copigmentation of ACNs with WP showed good stability | The preheating of WP before ACNs copigmentation produced more heat-stable and less UV-light stable compounds | The preheating of WP tends to protect ACNs from degradation. ACNs and WP combined pigments improve the performance of commercially available ACNs-based food colorants | [151] |
Copigmentation with carbohydrates | The non-polar interactions of polysaccharides [carbohydrates] cause the ACNs stability | Pectins and other carbohydrates inhibit the precipitation of the ACNs metal chelates, thus improving the color stability of the ACNs | Copigmentation of ACNs with the carbohydrates is the pH-dependent reaction, most of the fruit pectin exhibits good stability under pH 5 | Guar gum, xanthan gum, pectin, alginate, gum arabic, chitosan, and modified starches exhibited good ACNs stability under controlled conditions | [11] |
Nanoemulsion contained ACNs | Nanoemulsions containing the ACNs-rich mangosteen peel extract (MPE-NE) produced the self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system by stabilizing the ACNs | The nanoemulsion of ACNs had higher diffusion (97%) within 8 h in an in vitro analysis | Major factors affecting the nanoemulsions are particle size, zeta potential, and drug loading technique. In the nanoemulsion the droplet particle size, the ZP, and the drug loading were 20 nm, −12.40 mV, and 125 mg/5 mL, respectively | Nanoemulsion with MPE can increase penetration of predominant α-mangostin through the stratum corneum and can physically stabilize the ACNs for three months | [152] |
Mangosteen extract-based nanoemulsion | ACNs were stabilized by forming nanoemulsion with ethyl acetate mangosteen extract using a high-speed homogenization | Nanoemulsion used to stabilize ACNs for 28 days without phase separation | Promising factors affecting the nanoemulsions were particle size, ZP, and drug loading technique. | The 28 days stabilized mangosteen nanoemulsion can be used for topical application | [153] |
Red Cabbage ACNs-based nanoemulsions | Red cabbage ACNs were stabilized by being incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) through W/O microemulsion. Red cabbage ACNs used as aqueous phase against the lipid phase consisted of palmitic acid and span 85 (surfactant) and egg lecithin | The red cabbage ACNs emulsion was stabilized at pH 3.0 (gastric fluid) at a low temperature of <25 °C | Major factors affecting the nanoemulsions are particle size, ZP, and phase selected for the ACNs incorporation and temperature [60 °C] | ACNs from red cabbage can be stabilized using nanoemulsions at 25 °C and pH 3. It is the most convenient lab scale technique used to stabilize the ACNs | [154] |
Nanoliposomes | ACNs can be stabilized by layer-by-layer coating with biopolymers, forming the nanoliposomes can be stabilized. | ACN-based nanoliposomes tend to increase the adsorption, stability, and bioavailability of ACNs. These liposomes are considered nontoxic and nonimmunogenic | The considering factors affecting the ACN-based nanoliposomes stability are heterogeneous size distribution, low encapsulation efficiency, high energy cost, and the presence of solvent/surfactant residue | ACN-based nanoliposomes can be prepared by thin-film hydration, ethanol injection, reverse phase evaporation | [155,156] |
Nanoliposomes to encapsulate ACNs based extracts | To enhance the ACNs stability, Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn extract nanoliposomes formed using lecithin and cholesterol with an efficiency of 55% | The DPPH radical scavenging activity was increased from 11% to 64% of ACNs extract-based liposomes at 20–50 mg/mL | Factors affecting the stability of the ACN-based liposomes are particle size, increasing storage time, and a rise in temperature from 4 °C [206.2 nm] to 60 °C (157.5 nm) | During storage, about 35–40% of ACNs were found incorporated in nanoliposomes at 37 °C after 8 h and increase gradually to 45% after 24 hrs | [157] |
Encapsulation of ACNs by multilamellar liposomes formation | Hibiscus sabdariffa ACNs can be stabilized by incorporating them into polysaccharide-based coatings particularly chitosan and pectin by forming in multilamellar liposomes using the layer-by-layer technique | The multilayered liposomes of Hibiscus sabdariffa provided the highest stability over 30 days and proved an effective carrier system for ACNs | Factors affecting the multilamellar liposome stability are the material used for the liposome, number of coatings, extract concentration, coating percentage, surface coverage, particle size | The inclusion of HS extract into multilamellar liposomes did not significantly change in particle size and storage stability of coated ACNs compared to uncoated ACNs | [158] |
Lecithins Liposomes to encapsulate ACNs | Elderberry ACNs extract was stabilized using lecithins by forming nanoliposomes with a thin lipid film hydration technique. | Plant-based lecithin found a great potential to stabilize the ACNs coloring compounds. | The stability of ACN-based lecithin liposomes can be best improved at 4 °C in dark storage with a decrease in particle size to 166 nm | Soya lecithin liposome promoted the highest stability for the ACNs of blueberry extract, with low PDI (0.49), ZP −36.4 mV, and small particle size around 205 nm] | [159] |
Spray Drying | By spray drying, ACNs are atomized through a high-pressure nozzle followed by evaporation (150–220 °C) of the solvent to get the sprayed drops. Lastly, a cyclone is used to separate and recover the powdered product from the air. | This method is found quick, easy to adapt, cost-effective, and simple to scale up, with high encapsulation efficiency, and good storage stability. | Crucial parameters involved were the choice of suitable wall material for microencapsulation. Availability of the limited compounds that have low viscosity, solubility, film-forming capacity, and emulsifying properties. | Most used compounds are polysaccharides for spray-drying encapsulation of ACNs and polyphenolic compounds. | [5] |
Freeze Drying | ACNs can be stabilized by freezing mechanism includes sublimation, desorption, and finally the storage of the resulting dry material | The simplest process takes place in the absence of air and at a low temperature, and, obtained compounds get resistant to oxidation | Impart high costs due to the use of vacuum technology. A long period for dehydration about 20 hrs. is required. | ACNs present in the black bran rice powders can be stabilized by this method | [5,160] |
Green Solvent Extraction | ACNs stabilized during extraction from mulberry by using the green extraction solvent based on β-cyclodextrin and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) | β-cyclodextrin enhances ACNs stability by producing the fewer safety concerns | Optimal extraction can be obtained using β-cyclodextrin at 20 oC for 44.95 min at the concentration of 45 g L−1. | This method helps to improve the ACNs stability during extraction and also improves the thermal stability | [161] |
Formation of inclusion complex of β-CD | ACNs and their combinations were encapsulated in β-CD | ACNs stabilized by forming the inclusion complexes with β-CD | The molar ratio at 1:1 was maintained during the inclusion complex to attain the high encapsulation efficiency | Inclusion complexes help to increase the thermal and storage stability of the ACNs without changing the beneficial properties of these phenolic compounds | [162] |
Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) technique | During the extraction, the solvent used must be in a liquid state at more than the boiling point but less than its critical limit | PLE is an efficient, eco-friendly, and emerging technology to perform efficient ACNs extractions under high temperatures and pressure | The optimum conditions used for the PLE to extract black beans ACNs were ethanol: citric acid solution (30:70 v/v), with a flow rate of 4 mL min−1 under the temperature of 60 °C | The commercially acceptable technique used for the efficient extraction of ACNs from black beans | [163] |
Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction | Red ACNs pigments from roselle calyces were extracted using the SC-CO2. The total ACNS production was reported 1197 mg/100 g roselle calyces | SC-CO2 is considered an efficient extraction technique with low degradation rates of ACNs | Three process control variables that affected the ACNs stability during SC-CO2 extraction are pressure, temperature, and co-solvent ration [ethanol: water] | Maintaining the optimum conditions 27 MPa, 58 °C temperature, and 8.86% co-solvent ratio, maximum ACNs from roselle crystals can be extracted with a lower degradation rate and 2-fold higher yield than the conventional methods | [164] |
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Al-Khayri, J.M.; Asghar, W.; Akhtar, A.; Ayub, H.; Aslam, I.; Khalid, N.; Al-Mssallem, M.Q.; Alessa, F.M.; Ghazzawy, H.S.; Attimarad, M. Anthocyanin Delivery Systems: A Critical Review of Recent Research Findings. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312347
Al-Khayri JM, Asghar W, Akhtar A, Ayub H, Aslam I, Khalid N, Al-Mssallem MQ, Alessa FM, Ghazzawy HS, Attimarad M. Anthocyanin Delivery Systems: A Critical Review of Recent Research Findings. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(23):12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312347
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Khayri, Jameel Mohammed, Waqas Asghar, Aqsa Akhtar, Haris Ayub, Iram Aslam, Nauman Khalid, Muneera Qassim Al-Mssallem, Fatima Mohammed Alessa, Hesham Sayed Ghazzawy, and Mahesh Attimarad. 2022. "Anthocyanin Delivery Systems: A Critical Review of Recent Research Findings" Applied Sciences 12, no. 23: 12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312347
APA StyleAl-Khayri, J. M., Asghar, W., Akhtar, A., Ayub, H., Aslam, I., Khalid, N., Al-Mssallem, M. Q., Alessa, F. M., Ghazzawy, H. S., & Attimarad, M. (2022). Anthocyanin Delivery Systems: A Critical Review of Recent Research Findings. Applied Sciences, 12(23), 12347. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122312347