The foundation of our work already exists in the form of establishing food redistribution as one of the leading solutions of dealing with food wastage and ICT mediation is a great add-on to boost the surplus movement. However, work on the algorithms used to match the donors with the receivers remains elusive and is the main agenda of our paper.
1.1.1. Literature Review
Work has been conducted in this field that evaluates the efficacy of the usage of ICT in food redistribution or carries out survey-based research on the current usage of ICT by different food sharing communities. The perishable nature of products has forced changes to the food supply chain design to maximize shelf-life and minimize food waste [
7].
The rapid global growth of volunteer-dependent and ICT-based platform-mediated surplus food redistribution initiatives has been identified in [
8]. This research captured both the worlds of dominant interests and root cause mitigating best practices that are traded off in such food movements. The involvement and contributions of cultures, organizational facts and internal experiences have also been explored [
9]. While the study first reviewed the food waste management system of Singapore and the prevailing socio-political context, it also went on to discuss all formats of people’s interactions with food waste related problems. Reduction in food waste production as an approach for mitigating climate change attempted by grassroots initiatives aims to prevent avoidable food waste and redistribute surplus food for consumption, as presented in [
10]. These low budget initiatives rely heavily on volunteers to curb their costs. ICT, in terms of social media, acts as another tool in their success in surplus food movement. It has been suggested that environmental sustainability is best supported by an approach called the
Social Supermarket, in which a body for handling the surplus of a city works with several food distributors to acquire surplus food either directly from the donors or through a charitable government body and redistributes it to the needy [
11]. However, economically, the study reveals that the concept of
Food Bag Center is the most efficient, in which a body collects the surplus food of a city and redistributes it in grocery bags to financially challenged people. A unique study [
12] reported an attempt at the complicated task of reducing consumer food waste at cafeterias using the combo of ICTs and IoTs. Lunch lines containing sensors that track food wastage, which is later shown by an app on each consumer’s mobile, revealed an average of 3% of food wasted by the customers. Surplus food databases of market value have been created [
13] and the prevailing practices of surplus food management assessed. Propelled by a Thailand food rescue organization, the study went on to make several recommendations in the process that strengthened the organization’s ties with the donors and the receivers. As mentioned, partnering with a food sharing app
OLIO (
https://olioex.com/, accessed on 24 December 2020), an analysis of the social network of the app was presented [
2]. The analysis revealed the formation of new relationships that divert from the expected donor–receiver ones. This may prove pivotal for policy makers who aim to analyze and encourage ICT-assisted food redistribution. Recent studies [
14,
15] discuss the legislation policies affecting food wastage directly or indirectly in the European Union. They argued that although the existing policies do facilitate better food redistribution by means of mitigating existing challenges to smooth-out the process, they do not address the issue at the root level in terms of prevention of surplus food generation. They pointed out that the food policies of the land affect proper food redistribution and food waste prevention. The use of ICT speeds up the redistribution process, provides high scalability of the operations and also attracts better quality surplus food [
16]. Research [
17] also documents the complexities and opportunities involved in food redistribution locally. The study also highlights the practices that can transform the way surplus food is perceived and revalued. There also has been research [
18] on a specific South African mobile app named
Food for Us (
http://foodforus.co.za/, accessed on 24 December 2020). This app works on providing food to those in need and allowing small-scale producers to get their produce to markets. This paper reveals the need for developing a strong social networked system built around technological platforms such as this app to help find alternate markets for unsold farm produce. A valuable lesson is provided in [
19] by contrasting images between different food handling practices. The study termed food as “an instigator and a tool” that helps in learning and re-learning health, happiness, and ecology related impacts. The study pondered on the need to know and pay attention to the details that help differentiate between food and waste. Food redistribution has been portrayed as a double-edged sword to fight against food insecurity and food waste [
20]. The study discusses the efficacy of the anti-waste/pro-donation law of Italy in addressing both food waste and insecurity. It also points out that its effectiveness lies in bringing together the different actors in the food management process for tackling the food insecurity issue. The study notes the potential tensions that may soon be realized due to the use of different paths for food surplus utilization. The same concept encourages some people to donate expiring food items charitably, while others sell it at a discounted price. The concept of a peer-to-peer (P2P) food sharing system based on high internet usage and people interested in food sharing is well-studied [
21]. This study acts as a base to identify future P2P food collection and redistribution zones and the actors they can attract. The creation and accumulation of networks of sharing individuals, as well as how digital platforms can aid in the scaling of such an approach keeping in mind the sustainability of such initiatives, has been assessed [
22]. The scenario of sharing food in cities has also been directly assessed [
23] and viewed as a field of experimentation and innovation. The study identifies places, leading approaches, common trends and notions that are involved and provides a basis for future research.
Adequate pricing for items having unpredictable demand and time-dependent usability has been observed as an interesting strategy leading to waste reduction [
24]. It has been recognised [
25] that ICTs do contribute towards a smoother transformation to sustainable food systems by increasing resource productivity, reducing inefficiencies, decreasing management costs, and improving food chain coordination. As a matter of fact, the contribution of ICT in the redistribution of surplus prepared or cooked food, which have a very short window of recoverability before they spoil, has been observed [
16]. This study remarks on the ability of ICT-based platforms to rapidly locate surplus receivers who can put this food to good use. The study also examines how communities having different goals for food redistribution cooperate in implementing ICT-mediated solutions in food sharing activities. While it clearly highlights the scaling of new horizons by the use of ICTs, it also alerts about the moral hazards and social regulations that form around the redistribution of surplus food. Food sharing practices have been termed as “messy” [
26] emphasizing that it includes diverse ranges of participants and practices that also vary over space and time and are connected via both physical and virtual platforms (ICTs). As stated previously, it is pointed out that an ICT intervention resulted in the recovery of surplus food at all stages of food production [
6]. However, maximum recovery was noted in the retail stage. The study also credited the faster movement of surplus in ICT-mediated redistribution. The urban food sharing habits and activities, including provision, consumption and redistribution of food, have been thoroughly studied by them as well. What constitutes food and what can be considered acceptable food practice have also been discussed and pushed to new limits. Regulations of the land and the involved food risk emerge as key factors to consider during such redistribution activities. Production beyond need, poor management, and bad consumer behaviours have been identified as the reasons that cause difficult challenges related to food wastage on a global scale [
27]. The study also examines surplus food redistribution as a solution to this challenge in the United Kingdom and finds that there is a lot of scope for further improvement in efficiency. How food donation facilitates the transition towards a circular economy and brings together the diverse players of the process have been explored [
28]. The study draws an important conclusion that multi-agent collaborations are the key towards a circular economy. The thesis [
29] presented the different motives and interactions of the different actors involved in the act of food distribution. The study also brought into light the operational effects of the act and the challenges and alternatives to the donors. Another study [
30] summarized the food redistribution initiatives implemented by individuals across more than ninety countries. The study evaluated these initiatives in terms of sustainability and created a database that depicts the transformation of the society towards sustainability.
The study [
31] acknowledges the positive impact of ICT in food redistribution and also created a database of such food sharing activities across several cities, countries and continents in order to facilitate the identification and analysis of repetitive patterns and temporal trends in ICT-mediated surplus redistribution. Food sharing, coupled with structural changes along the production line and better consumer habits, has been deemed [
32] as a potential solution towards reducing food waste. Food redistribution is predicted to mitigate the effects of the food crunch that will arise due to growing demands for food of the ever exploding population of the world and the limitation of natural resources. Prevailing food practices and waste generation rates have been rendered not only environmentally, but also economically and socially unsustainable in the long run. The study [
33] establishes the fact that more than one out of eight people in the United States is affected with food insecurity in spite of around one-third of all food production going into landfills. The study acknowledges that food redistribution organizations do mitigate this insecurity, although more in some states of the country than in others. The study [
34] also recognizes the positive impacts of food redistribution on the environment, economy, and society in Italy. Highly benefited areas were identified and profiles for such redistribution activities were built. The study [
35] acknowledged the contrasting challenges of food waste and food insecurity in the US. Based on the analysis of the K–12 school system in Maine, it was pointed out that very little is known about the strategies that schools use to handle the considerable amount of food waste that they produce. This paper suggested that several factors are considered in the choice of any waste reduction policies in schools. The study [
36] studied the prevailing traceability practices of Stockholm’s Stadsmission food bank. Although the then current practices proved to be sufficient to provide food safety and quality, potential for systematic errors was also detected. They pointed out the absence of temperature control at the donation and receipt points to be the main issue in the redistribution process. The study [
37] observed the working of an Israeli food bank using a different logistical model from the other food banks. They have non-profit organizations (NPOs) as intermediaries that add fresh produce to the surplus, thereby improving the food value of the redistribution. However, this unique approach requires additional infrastructure and strict measures when compared to the simple surplus redistribution process, as noted by the study. The environmental impact of food redistribution from donation to consumption against that of alternative options such as landfilling and composting has been discussed [
38]. Although the facts favoured composting, a better optimized food redistribution utilizing benefits of using the other alternative options in the process seemed to be a win–win solution for the future. Dynamic pricing of perishable goods [
39] and better inventory policies for items whose prices are dependant on the item’s remaining shelf-life [
40] have been shown to benefit both revenue generation and waste reduction, making them attractive choices. In fact, models have been studied for items having different expiry dates and buyers opting for different items based on item costs and expiry dates [
41].
The study [
42] accepts that the unwise and inefficient use of food resources has rendered us in need for a transition towards sustainable practices. The study explores this transition towards a circular food system and discusses the problems and probable solutions for each stage of food production. The three phases of handling surplus food waste, namely, prevention, recovery, and recycling, have been highlighted [
43]. This takes the utilization of surplus food waste to beyond human consumption. This paper also states that holistic changes in food production methods are the best approach towards sustainability in the long run. The results of ICT application to the various stages of food wastage have been studied, as previously stated [
5]. Different features added to the base ICT platform attracted agents at different stages to participate in the surplus redistribution movement. However, low recoverability of food at the household level was noted as well. ICT solutions have also been identified [
44] for efficiency through monitoring and assessment of environmental impact, enhanced transparency and traceability in the food system, and creation of a network between actors in the food chains to influence and change food practices. Multiple case studies have been explored to provide available surplus management options and the factors that make these options attractive and applicable [
45]. The results of this study suggest the availability of several food redistribution options that are applicable over the recoverable window of food items. Certain recommendations were made for the improvement of food redistribution [
46]. They recommend a systems operator at the national level to coordinate redistribution activities, proper food redistribution guidelines that cover safety and efficacy of the activity, sufficient funding for the same, and prioritizing food redistribution. The research [
47] compares a food redistribution environment with and without a food bank and evaluates the effects of a food bank on the environment and the finance of the participants of the activity. The study establishes the superiority of having a food bank in the picture on both the parameters mentioned above.
Re-Food (
https://www.re-food.org/en, accessed on 4 January 2021), a Portuguese food redistributor, has been studied [
48] and it was found that logistic related issues stop it from fully eliminating food waste. The study also notes that the firm brings together people from different stages of the redistribution activity to adhere to a common cause that is the local elimination of food waste and hunger issues. There is research [
49] on mathematical models of food circulation by food banks to analyze and optimize the effective and equitable distribution of food, i.e., food distributed to each service area should be proportional to the demand of food in that service area.
The concept of food redistribution and the principles that follow it have been put forward [
50], and the food redistribution activities have been analyzed on that basis. This paper also suggested that encouragement for food businesses to donate the surplus they generate is an important step in handling the reducing surplus production of food. A Norwegian study [
51] took the solution of food waste generation to beyond human redistribution and consumption. The study included approaches such as fodder for animals, biogas generation, and even compost. This stretches the utility of surplus beyond products for human consumption. However, it identified food redistribution as the most sustainable and appropriate approach for handling the surplus. One study [
52] carried out in Finland calculated the number of cooked meals at up to 10,000 a year, and that of redistributed food bags as up to 270,000 bags a year by one organization, from donated surplus or redistributed food. This study suggested a possibility of improvement in food waste reduction strategies of the country. Government policies have been analyzed [
53] with respect to handling food waste generation and overall people welfare and categorized them into policies that help achieve a relationship between both the above goals and that help achieve one of them while degrading the situation for the other. The study pointed out that there are policies that are categorized into both the above mentioned types. Thus, as it is inferred in the study, public health needs to be the main consideration when designing policies for food waste reduction and management.
Food rescue has been highlighted [
54] as an initiative in the emergency food sector internationally in an attempt to reduce food waste and to improve supplies to providers and consumers. The steps through which food producers recover and donate their surplus food for redistribution to the food banks have been brought into light [
55]. Although the research only covers Italy, it still provides valuable insights into the visceral operations of food organizations that relate to their tax savings, waste management, and society rapport. While accepting surplus food redistribution as a key solution to food waste reduction, one step ahead has been taken [
56] by also suggesting a model for surplus food generation and management. The study also shows how to use this model to pinpoint food wastage mitigation options. Although food banks are a successful concept in the food management process, it has been noted that the government does not track its usage [
57]. Although many conclude on several welfare reforms being the reason for the growth of food banks, the government is poised on their say that there is no strong evidence to suggest that. The study [
58] covers the food redistribution systems that existed in China at around 200 BC. Through archaeological evidence, it documents that food was redistributed by the emperor to the subjects in various forms and notes the different dietary conditions of people at diverse status in the society. This study notes discrepancies between the passed regulation and the actuation of the redistribution process. The study also studied the redistribution to the those in need and noted a bias towards saving physically capable farmers rather than addressing to the needs of the economically endangered ones. It also sheds light on an exceptional method of redistribution used by the rulers to feed people of inferior status through feast leftovers. Another study [
59] proposes a model to maximize the economical benefits of food redistribution for the retail donor organizations. The model suggests optimal time for withdrawing food items from shelves for redistribution and also donation quantities for human and livestock consumption such that retailer profit is maximized.