Investigating the Association Between Transformational Leadership and Job Satisfaction: The Role of Gratitude Towards the Organization in the Peruvian Context

Abstract

Leadership literature suggests that a transformational leadership style can reduce negative employee outcomes, even in challenging work environments such as the education sector, where teachers play a key role in social development. This study aimed to analyze the association between transformational leadership and job satisfaction: the role of gratitude toward the organization in the Peruvian context. A cross-sectional study with an explanatory design was conducted considering 457 men and women who declared themselves teachers, aged between 18 and 73 years (M = 38.63; SD = 10.61), recruited through non-probability convenience sampling. The theoretical model was evaluated using the Partial Least Squares method (PLS-SEM). An adequately fitting measurement model was obtained (α = between 0.893 and 0.969; CR = between 0.897 and 0.971; AVE = between 0.757 and 0.845), demonstrating that transformational leadership is positively associated with the components of gratitude toward the organization and job satisfaction, as well as the association of the components of gratitude toward the organization and job satisfaction. In turn, it was evident how gratitude toward the organization plays a mediating role in these relationships. In this sense, the study provides valuable information for Peruvian educational leaders seeking to improve indicators of satisfaction, gratitude, and leadership in their work environment. These findings enrich educational management, given that it is the first empirical study to demonstrate these links in a challenging sector of an emerging country, offering a solid foundation for the development of more humanized, effective, and sustainable management strategies.

1. Introduction

Effectively managed organizations are those considered high-performing and aspiring to be successful (Hoch et al., 2016). On this path, senior managers must consider that human talent is valuable and essential to have a healthy work environment (Zacharo et al., 2018). Managers must be intentional in their behavior to foster appreciation in their employees (Fischer, 2022). Employees should think about the type of work quality for which they are grateful, so that health, work, and participation improve (Sekaja et al., 2022). The way they feel in their workplace (Muguerza-Florián et al., 2023) depends largely on the leadership model that is exercised throughout the organization (Laura-Arias et al., 2024) since good leaders can foster a more committed, creative community with better solutions (Miao & Cao, 2019; Purwanto, 2020).

As with many aspects of human life, job satisfaction is influenced by several factors (Iskandarsyah et al., 2021). Some of these factors are unique to the individual, while others exist in the employee’s work and professional environment (Kumari et al., 2023; MacLean et al., 2018; Navarro-Prados et al., 2024). One of the important factors that affects job satisfaction, especially in the workplace, is leadership style (Abolnasser et al., 2023). Leadership is the key to culture (Aryee et al., 2023), innovation (Chughtai et al., 2023; Domínguez-Escrig et al., 2022; Seibel et al., 2023), performance (Lede et al., 2024; Saputra et al., 2024), sustainability (Qadan et al., 2023; Saragih et al., 2023), and the success of the organization in a market that is constantly changing (Hassan et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2019). A variety of leadership styles are used in educational contexts, including bureaucratic, democratic, strategic, authoritarian, ethical, servant (Espejo-Pereda et al., 2025a), transactional (Maqbool et al., 2024; Shal et al., 2024), empowering and shared Leadership (Espejo-Pereda et al., 2025b). In this sense, one of the most common leadership styles that has attracted much attention from the academic field in the educational sector in recent years is transformational leadership (Li et al., 2024).

Recent studies have highlighted the interest in gratitude as an organizational value capable of positively affecting individual and collective dimensions (Garg, 2023b; Locklear et al., 2023). Furthermore, greater dispositional gratitude has been shown to increase the tendency to use positive reframing, which in turn significantly affects interpretations of life events (Cortini et al., 2019). On the other hand, research on job satisfaction has indicated that this is essential for the long-term success of an organization, since it directly affects productivity, talent retention, the work environment, and the ability to attract and retain talented employees (C. Chen et al., 2022). It should be noted that both transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and the gratitude that the employee has towards the institution are essential elements to achieve organizational objectives. The presence of transformational leadership styles and a supportive environment will increase employees’ job satisfaction and improve their performance and perception of gratitude.

A review of previous literature has identified a growing interest in exploring these topics in depth, both within the academic community and among professionals in education and business. Scientific evidence, through a bibliometric analysis, highlights the ten countries with the highest scientific production in this field, such as the USA (Metaferia et al., 2023), China (Yang et al., 2023), United Kingdom (Roeters & Craig, 2014), India (Garg, 2023a), Malaysia (Choi et al., 2016), Australia (Ghadi, 2017), Indonesia (Setyaningsih & Sunaryo, 2021), South Korea (Niu et al., 2023), Canada (Kippenbrock et al., 2022) and Germany (Schulze-Hagenest et al., 2023), which have applied these studies to various areas, sectors and populations, such as business, social sciences, medicine, psychology and nursing. However, when analyzing scientific dissemination by country, it has been shown that there is no previous study where this theoretical model has been applied in the context of Peruvian teachers. The dissemination of studies in this area of knowledge could generate a scientific precedent that serves as support and guidance for future studies in this context. Thus, the present research seeks to fill this knowledge gap and provide a valuable contribution to the academic community and professionals in the education sector involved in areas such as Human Talent Management, organizational development, employee well-being, social assistance, and continuing education training. In this sense, the purpose of the research was to analyze the association between transformational leadership and job satisfaction: the role of gratitude toward the organization in the Peruvian context.

The present study is divided into the following sections: Section 2 contains the literature review and hypothesis development. Section 3 provides materials and methods. Section 4 focuses on the results. Section 5 refers to the discussion, and Section 6 to the conclusions.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership (TL) is one of the most researched theoretical foundations of leadership today (Seegel et al., 2019; Zainal & Matore, 2021). Transformational leadership is considered by some experts to be the power to inspire and influence others and transform their consciousness (Unhalekka et al., 2022; Villar-Guevara et al., 2025), which allows them to value what is important, exceed expectations, and face challenges in innovative ways (Abolnasser et al., 2023); the transformational leader is a mentor and facilitator of training (Choi et al., 2016), which in turn involves a set of behaviors to lead the change process (Moll & Kretzschmar, 2017; Reis et al., 2020). In this sense, various studies identify it as one of the most important factors that affects creativity (Alwaely et al., 2024) and innovation (dos Anjos & Kuhn, 2024; Zhu & Huang, 2023), and this, in turn, is associated with greater job satisfaction, making leadership the most important indirect factor (Høyrup, 2010). On the other hand, other studies have shown that the leadership style of principals plays a key role in the preparation of qualified teachers (Ahmad & Rochimah, 2021). Transformational managers can serve as important agents in establishing a clear vision in the group (Li et al., 2024; D. Wang et al., 2024), help boost their confidence (Kılınç et al., 2024; Mansor et al., 2021), and develop their skills (Dong et al., 2017).

2.2. Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction (JS) is understood as the evaluative judgment that each worker makes about their work situation, whether positive or negative (Schulze-Hagenest et al., 2023). This statement is consistent with Dwidienawati et al. (2024), who stated that job satisfaction is a complex emotional response to work; furthermore, it describes a positive attitude towards work and is related to positive emotional states that result from reflective thinking about experiences in the workplace (Tucaliuc et al., 2023). Other specialists define it as the level of happiness that an employee feels while working (Song et al., 2020). It is important to understand that the elements and causes of job satisfaction differ from person to person (Acuña-Hurtado et al., 2024b); what seems like happiness to one person may not be enough for another (Dadaczynski et al., 2020). Recent studies recognize it as a pleasant sensation that a person experiences while working. Given this, some renowned organizations are trying to test this theory through research (Suriagiri et al., 2022).

2.3. Gratitude Towards the Organization

In positive psychology, experts in this field define gratitude as a human condition (Palazzeschi et al., 2022). Others define it as part of a broader lifestyle that requires understanding and appreciating the good in the world (Cortini et al., 2019; Komase et al., 2020; McCullough et al., 2001; Sudiro et al., 2023). In an organizational context, some studies have shown strong relationships with mental health, trust, and commitment (Chou & Chen, 2018), stress and fatigue (Maghsoudi, 2020), and hope and optimism (Adair et al., 2020). Additionally, research shows that gratitude affects the mediating effect between mental exhaustion and job stress (Hwang & Lee, 2021). In this sense, there are many socially acceptable ways to express gratitude in the workplace (Williams, 2023), so team leaders need to show their members that they believe in them and are proud of the work they do (Bernabé-Valero et al., 2020; Emmons & Crumpler, 2000; Yang et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2024), although, people who can express gratitude in their lives do not necessarily do so in the work environment (Cain et al., 2019; X. Wang et al., 2020). In that sense, gratitude can be understood as the expression of appreciation for the benefits related to work and how these benefits contribute to people’s lives (Unanue et al., 2021), specifically to one’s ability to experience positive feelings at work. Finally, after demonstrating the benefits of gratitude, organizations can use it as a strategy to improve employee well-being (Fehr et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2024).

2.4. Transformational Leadership and Gratitude Towards the Organization

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that focuses on inspiring, influencing, and motivating employees to reach their full potential and make meaningful contributions to the organization (Miao & Cao, 2019; Sjamsoeddin et al., 2023). This leadership style has a profound and positive effect on all aspects of the work environment, including gratitude at work (Xia et al., 2024). When employees use this leadership style, they recognize and celebrate individual and team achievements, and this recognition not only reinforces positive behavior but also causes employees to perceive high levels of gratitude toward the organization (GTO) for being valued and appreciated (Khwaja, 2023). Employees typically report higher levels of job satisfaction, which in turn translates into greater gratitude toward the organization and its leaders, thereby improving the work environment and overall organizational performance (de Medeiros et al., 2023; Williams, 2023). Based on the above, the following study hypotheses are proposed:

H1. 

Transformational leadership is positively associated with gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity.

H2. 

Transformational leadership is positively associated with gratitude as a moral norm.

2.5. Transformational Leadership and Job Satisfaction

Transformational leaders create a clear and compelling vision for the future that gives employees a sense of purpose and meaning (Zainal & Matore, 2021). From this point of view, each employee feels greater engagement and satisfaction when they understand how their role contributes to the organization’s mission and goals (Hatta et al., 2018). On the other hand, these types of leaders empower employees by delegating roles to make independent decisions, which increases the feeling of control and autonomy at work, which are key factors in job satisfaction (Zhu & Huang, 2023). Recent studies show that transformational leaders understand the importance of work–life balance, contributing significantly to employees’ job satisfaction (Dahniel, 2019). Therefore, this leadership style positively impacts motivation, personal development, empowerment, job satisfaction, recognition, creation of a positive organizational climate, promotion of creativity, and work–life balance (Sijabat et al., 2021). A holistic approach applied to workers provides everlasting benefits to both the work group and the organization as a whole (Wolfram & Mohr, 2009). Based on the above, the following study hypotheses are proposed:

H3. 

Transformational leadership is positively associated with job satisfaction.

2.6. The Dimensions of Gratitude Towards the Organization and Job Satisfaction

Very few studies on gratitude towards the organization have been reported so far; however, specialists in this line maintain a probable relationship with it and employee job satisfaction (Bai et al., 2024). These refer to their association in improving the work environment, increasing commitment and motivation, as well as providing recognition and appreciation, improving mental health and well-being, strengthening organizational culture, and increasing productivity and performance (H. Chen et al., 2023). These factors create a more positive and satisfying work environment, where employees feel appreciated, valued, and motivated to give their best (Akram et al., 2023; Stegen & Wankier, 2018). Based on the above, the following study hypotheses are proposed:

H4. 

Gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity is positively associated with job satisfaction.

H5. 

Gratitude as a moral norm is positively associated with job satisfaction.

2.7. The Dimensions of Gratitude Towards the Organization, Transformational Leadership, and Job Satisfaction

The mediating role of gratitude toward the organization in the connection between transformational leadership and job satisfaction has not been addressed to date, and this is the first academic work to address the interaction of these variables. However, the literature reports the positive impact of gratitude programs on psychological health and, therefore, contributes to job satisfaction (Burke & Richardsen, 2019; Harty et al., 2025). Some published studies demonstrate the moderating role of gratitude in leadership (Luo et al., 2025). The present study is based on the Affective Events Theory (AET), which suggests that interactions and events within organizations generate emotional reactions in workers, thereby shaping their perceptions and attitudes in the work environment. In line with this theory, Luo et al. (2025) showed that ethical leadership promotes gratitude toward the organization, which acts as a mediator between leadership and prosocial behaviors at work. Similarly, Zhao et al. (2023) determined that dispositional gratitude is an indicator of emotional well-being and work engagement. These studies suggest a link between the variables analyzed and propose gratitude as a mediating component.

On the other hand, it is known that leaders who demonstrate moral and ethical conduct, considering the interests of the parties, are often perceived by employees as genuinely concerned for their well-being, generating a feeling of gratitude toward the leader (Burke & Richardsen, 2019). Studies of daily leadership show a close relationship between leadership and gratitude in work environments (Kelemen et al., 2020). Given this, it is clear that gratitude not only plays a role as a positive emotion but also positions itself as a fundamental relational element that can increase the link between transformational leadership and job satisfaction. Therefore, analyzing its role as a mediating variable constitutes both a significant theoretical and empirical contribution, as it enriches the understanding of the psychosocial processes underlying leader-employee interactions in the workplace. Thus, research such as this aims to address an existing gap in the literature and provide new guidelines for the design of organizational interventions focused on organizational well-being and performance. Based on the above, the following study hypotheses are proposed:

H6a. 

Gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction.

H6b. 

Gratitude as a moral norm mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction.

Consequently, Figure 1 graphically details the hypotheses of this study:

3. Methods

3.1. Study Design

For this study, a cross-sectional explanatory design was chosen. Explanatory design is a type of non-experimental research design that falls within the associative strategy. Its fundamental purpose is to test theoretical models of the relationships between variables and to integrate them into an underlying theory. It is beneficial when one wishes to understand not only whether variables are related, but also how and why they are related. This design is justified because the research not only seeks correlations, but also contrasts a model derived from a previous theory. Because the study includes variables that are not directly observable, the explanatory design with latent variables allows for adequate modeling. Likewise, SEM (structural equation modeling) will be used; it is the most appropriate because it allows defining a system of equations where variables can interchange their roles as predictor and criterion, and modeling mediations, moderations, and indirect effects (Ato et al., 2013).

3.2. Study Participants

The study population consisted of Regular Basic Education (RBE) teachers in Peru. The Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI, 2025) database does not provide exact figures on the EBR teacher population, only an estimate based on teachers trained through government programs, which totals around 270,000 through early 2025. In this regard, the study population included all three regions of Peru (coast, mountains, and jungle) and considered only the education sector affiliated with the Peruvian Ministerio de Educación (MINEDU). MINEDU, in general terms, faces significant challenges at both the managerial and operational levels. Despite the implementation of meritocracy-oriented reforms, such as the Teacher Reform Law (Law N° 29944), and the establishment of mechanisms such as public competitions for the selection, promotion, and assignment to leadership positions, significant disparities remain in the planning, development, and retention of teaching and management staff. This is especially evident in rural areas and the Peruvian Amazon, where scientific results from recent years demonstrate an interest in taking initiatives to address the sector’s most significant challenges (Acuña-Hurtado et al., 2024a; Agustin-Silvestre et al., 2024; Laura-Arias et al., 2024; Muguerza-Florián et al., 2023; Villar-Guevara et al., 2024).

Non-probability convenience sampling (Otzen & Manterola, 2017) was used, using the Soper electronic tool (Soper, 2024). This tool takes into account the number of variables, both observed and latent, in the SEM, along with the anticipated effect size (λ = 0.2), the desired level of statistical significance (α = 0.05), and the required statistical power (1 − β = 0.80). The result suggested the inclusion of 342 participants as the sample size. However, it was decided to include a total of 457 teachers (

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the study sample (n = 457).

Characteristic	Category	Frequency	%
Sex	Female	294	64.3
	Male	163	35.7
Age range	18–29 years	107	23.4
	30–39 years	151	33.0
	40–49 years	116	25.4
	50–73 years	83	18.2
Civil status	Married	271	59.3
	Single	144	31.5
	Cohabitant	18	3.9
	Divorced	17	3.7
	Widower	7	1.5
Academic level	Graduate	144	31.5
	Technical	55	12.0
	Degree	199	43.5
	Teacher	58	12.7
	Doctorate	1	0.2
Teaching level	Preschool	56	12.3
	Primary	198	43.3
	Secondary	203	44.4

). In addition to including both men and women in this study, participants had to meet other inclusion criteria, such as teaching at any level of the RBE (preschool, primary, or secondary), teaching at a private institution in Peru under any employment modality, and being teaching at the time of data collection. Anyone who did not meet these criteria was excluded. Furthermore, to avoid text duplication in the records (such as identical cases or similar responses), a cleaning process was carried out that involved the implementation of techniques to identify duplicates through automated tools (SPSS and Excel), in addition to a manual review of coincidences in the responses. Only one record was kept for each participant, applying completeness and consistency criteria, which ensured the robustness of the analysis and eliminated any bias that could arise from data duplication.

In this sense, the descriptive analysis of the sociodemographic information (Table 1) demonstrates the characteristics of the study sample, which included 294 women and 163 men, between 18 and 73 years of age (M = 38.63; SD = 10.61). On the other hand, the majority of the participants were women (64.3%), aged 30 to 39 (33%), married (59.3%), with a bachelor’s degree (43.5%), and who taught at the secondary school (44.4%).

3.3. Procedure and Ethical Considerations

This research was approved by the Council and the Ethics Committee of the Graduate School of a private university in Peru (2023-CE-EPG-00034) and was carried out following the ethical principles established in the Declaration of Helsinki (Manzini, 2000; Puri et al., 2009). Managers of 28 educational institutions granted the necessary permissions before the application, and each teacher freely chose whether they wanted to participate in the study through a shortened consent form. The data was collected through an online survey (Google Form), the link of which was shared individually through the WhatsApp application. The teachers provided their answers voluntarily and anonymously to maintain the confidentiality of the information. This questionnaire was self-administered and was hosted on the platform during the second week of May 2023. This data collection interval was chosen considering both contextual and theoretical aspects. From a contextual perspective, this period coincides with the completion of the first quarter of employment in Peruvian educational institutions, which facilitates obtaining participants’ perceptions at a time that adequately reflects their experience within the organization. From a theoretical perspective, previous studies have shown that psychosocial factors such as satisfaction, leadership, and gratitude, within the context of work environments, can be affected by organizational conditions, whether stable or temporary (Ashfaq et al., 2025). Therefore, establishing the study period within a specific and controlled timeframe contributes to reducing uncontrolled external variance and strengthens the internal validity of the explanatory design.

3.4. Measurement Scales

A questionnaire, distributed in 3 sections, was designed. The first section consisted of informed consent. The second section contained the sociodemographic variables that allowed us to characterize the profile of the participants. The last section included the 3 measurement instruments. For transformational leadership, the scale proposed by van Beveren et al. (2017) is a unidimensional measure of 7 items in a 5-point Likert-type response format, from 1 (“never”) to 5 (“always”). Furthermore, to evaluate job satisfaction, the items were developed from the study of Jabeen et al. (2018), a unidimensional measurement of 5 items. To measure gratitude towards the organization (Wnuk, 2020), a 12-item measure divided into 2 factors was used: (1) Gratitude as a Commitment to Reciprocity (GCR) and (2) Gratitude as a Moral Norm (GMN). The method used to evaluate the latter two instruments was a 5-point Likert-type response format, measured from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”).

Prior to their application, the measurement scales were translated into Spanish using a back-translation method; additionally, they were subjected to a semantic validation process with the inclusion of six Peruvian teachers who met the profile of the participants, ensuring that the items were understandable for the future sample.

3.5. Analysis of Data

This study used the Partial Least Squares Structural Equations Method (PLS-SEM) for statistical data analysis. The choice of PLS-SEM is based on three main reasons. First, this technique is particularly suitable for exploratory research aimed at theoretical development and extension (Hair et al., 2019), which aligns with investigating the mediating role of organizational gratitude in the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction in the Peruvian context. Second, PLS-SEM demonstrates superior performance with relatively small sample sizes compared to covariance-based SEM (Reinartz et al., 2009). Third, this method is robust to non-normal data distributions, a common feature in organizational behavior research (Hair et al., 2017).

PLS-SEM is a variance-based structural equation modeling technique that focuses on maximizing the explained variance of endogenous constructs (Henseler et al., 2015). Its main advantages include: (1) its predictive orientation, which emphasizes explaining variance in dependent variables (Shmueli et al., 2019); (2) its flexibility to handle formative and reflective measurement models simultaneously; and (3) its ability to effectively work with complex models involving multiple mediating relationships (Sarstedt et al., 2022).

The choice of PLS-SEM is supported by its wide application in leadership and organizational behavior research. Recent studies investigating the effects of transformational leadership have successfully employed PLS-SEM, including research on leadership and employee outcomes (Khan et al., 2020), organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Seema et al., 2021), and cross-cultural leadership studies in Latin American contexts. The PLS-SEM analysis was implemented in two phases following established best practices (Hair et al., 2019). First, the psychometric characteristics of the measurement scale were analyzed, including reliability assessment, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the constructs. Finally, the study hypotheses were tested using the system of structural equations.

4. Results

4.1. Convergent Validity

The study estimated the validity and reliability of the constructs (convergent and discriminant validity) to determine the measurement model. Cronbach’s Alpha values (between 0.893 and 0.969) exceed the threshold value of 0.70, making them acceptable (Hair et al., 2017). Similarly, the composite reliability (CR) shows values between 0.897 and 0.971, which were above the suggested value of 0.70 (Kline, 2015). Likewise, to assess convergent validity, it is necessary to examine the factor loadings and the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). As observed in

Table 2. Convergent validity results.

Construct	Item	Factor Loading	α	CR	AVE
Gratitude as a Commitment to Reciprocity (GCR)	GCR1	0.872	0.956	0.957	0.765
	GCR2	0.873
	GCR3	0.917
	GCR4	0.914
	GCR5	0.786
	GCR6	0.882
	GCR7	0.864
	GCR8	0.882
Gratitude as a Moral Norm (GMN)	GMN1	0.881	0.893	0.900	0.757
	GMN2	0.912
	GMN3	0.879
	GMN4	0.806
Job Satisfaction (JS)	JS1	0.923	0.896	0.897	0.828
	JS2	0.917
	JS3	0.201 *
	JS4	0.888
	JS5	−0.037 *
Transformational Leadership (TL)	TL1	0.897	0.969	0.971	0.845
	TL2	0.897
	TL3	0.939
	TL4	0.944
	TL5	0.877
	TL6	0.939
	TL7	0.939

Note. The results obtained for convergent validity indicated adequate values, with Factor Loadings, Cronbach’s alpha (α), and Composite Reliability (CR) equal to or greater than 0.70, and an Average Variance Extracted (AVE) greater than 0.50. * These values were suppressed for the calculation of the final model.

, all factor loadings exceed the recommended value of 0.70, except for items JA3 and JA5 of the job satisfaction scale, which were eliminated from the final model due to poor factor loadings (0.201 and −0.037, respectively), well below the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2017). This methodological decision was based on established criteria for PLS-SEM, where maintaining items with poor loadings compromises the convergent validity of the construct (Hulland, 1999). The elimination did not affect the content validity of the scale, since the remaining items (JA1, JA2, JA4) adequately capture the core dimensions of job satisfaction, showing loadings greater than 0.88 and significantly improving the psychometric properties of the construct. This refinement followed the methodological best practices recommended in the structural equation modeling literature (Chin, 2010).

Table 2 also indicates that the AVE values ranged from 0.757 to 0.845, exceeding the minimum threshold of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2017). These results confirm that convergent validity was satisfactorily met for all constructs. Based on these results, all constructs assessed were deemed error-free, and construct reliability was determined (see Table 2).

To assess convergent validity, it is necessary to examine the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and factor loadings (Hair et al., 2017). As seen in Table 1, all factor loadings exceed the recommended value of 0.70, except for items JS3 and JS5, which were excluded from the final model calculation. Table 2 also indicates that AVE values range from 0.757 to 0.845, exceeding the minimum threshold of 0.50. These results confirm that convergent validity is satisfactorily met for all constructs.

4.2. Discriminant Validity

To determine discriminant validity, two criteria were taken into account: (1) the Fornell–Larker criterion and (2) the Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratio (Hair et al., 2017). The requirements were confirmed by the Fornell–Larker condition as all AVE values and their square roots are reported to be higher than their correlations with other constructs, as detailed in

Table 3. Fornell–Larcker scale.

	GCR	GMN	JS	TL
GCR	0.875
GMN	0.714	0.870
JS	0.594	0.504	0.910
TL	0.574	0.410	0.434	0.919

Note. The diagonal values in bold represent the square of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE).

(Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Table 4. Heterotrait–Monotrait Relationship (HTMT).

	GCR	GMN	JS	TL
GCR
GMN	0.770
JS	0.641	0.562
TL	0.594	0.436	0.466

presents the results for the HTMT ratio, showing that none of the constructs exceeded the critical threshold of 0.85, supporting the discriminant validity of the model (Henseler et al., 2015). Although methods such as partial least squares, the Fornell–Larcker criterion, and cross-loadings analysis have traditionally been used to assess discriminant validity, several simulation studies have shown that these approaches do not reliably detect the absence of such validity in common empirical contexts. In this regard, an alternative approach based on the multitrait-multimethod matrix, specifically the Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) correlation ratio, has been proposed.

The superior effectiveness of this approach was confirmed by a Monte Carlo simulation study, in which it was compared with the aforementioned conventional methods. Based on this analysis, the use of the HTMT ratio was consolidated as a robust measure for assessing discriminant validity. The results obtained revealed no validity or reliability problems in the measurement model, allowing us to move forward with confidence toward evaluating the structural model using the collected data.

4.3. Structural Model Analysis

The PLS-SEM method was used to evaluate the hypotheses presented in this study. Predictive relevance values were used to fit the model. It is also important to consider that cross-validated redundancy (R²) values indicate the predictive relevance of the model. In this sense, for the model to be accurate, R² values must be greater than 0 (Hair et al., 2014; Henseler et al., 2015). Through the blind method, R² values were established, showing that all values of the endogenous constructs were greater than 0, indicating the accuracy of the model. Finally,

Table 5. R² of the endogenous latent variables.

Construct	R2
Gratitude as a Commitment to Reciprocity (GCR)	0.329
Gratitude as a Moral Norm (GMN)	0.168
Job Satisfaction (JS)	0.379

shows the endogenous latent variables and their corresponding R².

The path coefficient values, p-value, and t-statistics were used to accept and reject the hypotheses as shown in Figure 2 and

Table 6. Structural Model Results.

H	Hypothesis	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)	T Statistics (|O/STDEV|)	p Values	Decision
H1	TL-GCR	0.574	0.575	0.041	13.834	0.000	Supported
H2	TL-GMN	0.410	0.411	0.050	8.160	0.000	Supported
H3	TL-JS	0.140	0.139	0.052	2.690	0.007	Supported
H4	GCR-JS	0.397	0.395	0.075	5.265	0.000	Supported
H5	GMN-JS	0.163	0.164	0.063	2.585	0.010	Supported
H6a	TL-GCR -JS	0.067	0.068	0.029	2.279	0.023	Supported
H6b	TL-GMN-JS	0.228	0.228	0.049	4.616	0.000	Supported

. The strength of the relationship between the variables can be examined through the coefficient values of the Route. Path coefficient values close to +1 indicate a strong relationship and vice versa (Hair et al., 2016). The p values and the t statistics refer to the acceptance and rejection of the proposed hypotheses.

In this study, the conceptual model contains seven hypotheses. The results of the tested hypotheses have been summarized in Table 6. H1 is accepted, which proposed that transformational leadership (TL) is positively associated with gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity (GCR) (β = 0.574, p < 0.000, t = 13.834); H2 was accepted, which proposed that transformational leadership (TL) is positively associated with gratitude as a moral norm (GMN) (β = 0.410, p < 0.000, t = 8.160); H3 is accepted, which proposed that transformational leadership (TL) is positively associated with job satisfaction (JS) (β = 0.140, p = 0.007, t = 2.690); and H4 is accepted, which proposed that gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity (GCR) is positively associated with job satisfaction (JS) (β = 0.397, p < 0.000, t = 5.265). H5 is accepted, which proposed that gratitude as a moral norm (GMN) is positively associated with job satisfaction (JS) (β = 0.163, p = 0.010, t = 2.585).

Moreover, in turn, the results of the mediation analysis partially confirm the hypotheses proposing organizational gratitude as a mediating variable, as established by mediation hypothesis H6a, that gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity (GCR) mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction; this hypothesis is statistically supported, as shown in the notation (β = 0.228, t = 4.616, p < 0.001). This result demonstrates that transformational leadership is positively associated with job satisfaction through feelings of reciprocal obligation toward the organization, thereby confirming the role of social exchange mechanisms in the Peruvian work context. Mediation hypothesis H6b, which establishes that gratitude as a moral norm (GMN) would mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction, receives somewhat limited support (β = 0.067, t = 2.279, p = 0.023), since the indirect effect is statistically supported at the 0.05 level. However, the magnitude is much smaller, suggesting that the moral dimension of gratitude as a moral norm plays a less dominant mediating role than the dimension of commitment to reciprocity.

In this way, all the proposed hypotheses were tested. These findings show that transformational leadership is positively associated with both dimensions of organizational gratitude, reinforcing our understanding of its crucial role in faculty satisfaction and gratitude, providing educational institutions with valuable information to improve management and leadership within their teams. Furthermore, gratitude toward the organization has been shown to be positively associated with job satisfaction, providing organizations with relevant information on how to improve their faculty’s work experience. This could influence human resource management strategies and the way organizations approach recognition and organizational culture. In turn, these results show that Peruvian workers’ behavior is more intense when their managers’ transformational behavior generates feelings of reciprocal obligation. At the same time, the activation of moral norms of gratitude constitutes a secondary but significant mediating mechanism (As shown in Figure 2).

5. Discussion

The objective of this study was to analyze the association between transformational leadership and job satisfaction, specifically examining the role of gratitude towards the organization in the Peruvian context. Regarding gratitude towards the organization, these results show a positive association of transformational leadership on both dimensions of gratitude: commitment to reciprocity and moral norm. Although this topic is little addressed in the field of education, studies on transformational leadership and gratitude in nurses reveal that an atmosphere of respect at work, which fosters gratitude, effective strategies, and shared governance, has generated and improved effectiveness in the work of nurses and better work attitudes (Abd-EL & Abou, 2021). In educational environments, the study by Garg and Gera (2019) finds a positive relationship between gratitude and teacher transformational leadership. Although this study was conducted in higher education institutions, this appears to be the closest to the sector’s context for the present study.

On the other hand, the results show that transformational leadership is positively associated with job satisfaction in Peruvian EBR teachers. Although studies of these variables have been carried out in the field of education, to date, this constitutes the first contribution made in the field of Peruvian teachers. The results show similarities with studies conducted in other contexts (Admuha & Poornimarani, 2021; Sezgin et al., 2024), such as Zuo et al. (2024), which demonstrates how transformational leadership is positively associated with job satisfaction and other variables, including organizational justice and psychological capital, serving as moderators. Other studies follow this same line of results, supporting these results (Baharuddin et al., 2023; Metaferia et al., 2023), and even the study by Zhang et al. (2022) shows that transformational leadership can positively affect shared purpose, collaborative activity, and collective focus on student learning, which in turn predicts job satisfaction in teachers.

The results also show that gratitude toward the organization, conceived as a commitment to reciprocity, is positively associated with job satisfaction. This finding aligns with studies such as those by Wnuk (2020) and especially H. Chen et al. (2023), who demonstrate that gratitude is related to job satisfaction, partially mediated by job crafting, understood as a form of behavioral reciprocity. This reinforces the idea that gratitude stimulates prosocial behaviors. Likewise, the present study finds support in previous research that highlights the mediating role of gratitude in the organizational context, especially when it is conceived as a moral norm rather than a commitment to reciprocity. On the one hand, Eisenberger et al. (2025) demonstrated that gratitude is a more effective mediator than felt obligation (reciprocity) in the relationship between perceived organizational support and outcomes such as job satisfaction and commitment, suggesting that its power lies in its emotional charge and not in a logic of exchange. On the other hand, the gratitude intervention study in public work settings in Sweden showed significant improvements in job satisfaction and engagement after promoting collective gratitude practices led by supervisors, reinforcing its role as a cultural and moral norm (Eisenberger et al., 2025).

In turn, the mediating role of gratitude toward the organization in the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction has not been widely explored, and this is one of the first studies to analyze this interaction. However, the literature has previously documented the positive impact of gratitude programs on psychological health, which in turn favors job satisfaction (Burke & Richardsen, 2019; Harty et al., 2025). Several studies report the moderating role of gratitude in leadership dynamics (Luo et al., 2025). In particular, leaders who adopt ethical behavior and consider the interests of their employees tend to be perceived as genuinely concerned about their well-being, generating feelings of gratitude toward them (Burke & Richardsen, 2019). The findings of this study confirm that organizational gratitude, in its dimension of reciprocity commitment, plays a relevant mediating role between transformational leadership and job satisfaction. This result supports the postulates of social exchange theory, highlighting the influence of reciprocal relationships in the organizational context. When leaders are perceived as fair and attentive to their employees’ well-being, a sense of positive obligation is strengthened, increasing satisfaction. In contrast, although gratitude as a moral norm also shows a statistically significant mediating effect, its smaller magnitude indicates that internal norms have a more limited explanatory impact. This invites further study of the relational versus normative dimensions of gratitude in Latin American organizations. Finally, the scientific literature published to date shows a strong consensus between the links between transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and gratitude toward the organization (although this is the least studied), with no contrary empirical results or negative associations reported in educational contexts.

6. Conclusions

The study aimed to analyze the association between transformational leadership and job satisfaction: the role of gratitude toward the organization in the Peruvian context. Given this, the findings of this research confirm the relevance of transformational leadership as a strategic resource for reducing negative effects on the workplace, even in complex and challenging contexts such as the Peruvian education system. The empirical evidence obtained supports that this leadership approach contributes significantly to the creation of more positive, healthy, and productive work environments, thanks to its ability to inspire and motivate employees beyond their own interests. By fostering a shared vision, stimulating critical thinking, and offering personalized attention, transformational leadership strengthens organizational commitment and promotes working relationships based on trust and mutual respect.

Furthermore, the results obtained allow us to affirm that transformational leadership is not only directly associated with the job satisfaction of Peruvian teachers but also promotes the development of feelings of gratitude toward the organization that hosts it, both as an internalized moral norm and based on a commitment to reciprocity. Likewise, it was observed that both forms of gratitude were observed to have a positive association with job satisfaction, which in turn suggests that the former plays a mediating role in the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction. These findings offer a deeper understanding of the psychosocial mechanisms that may be linked to leadership, organizational climate, and the emotional well-being of educational staff. Finally, this study offers relevant practical implications for leaders in the education sector, as well as for those responsible for managing human talent and academic staff in the sector, which will be detailed in the following section. Together, these findings enrich the field of educational leadership and provide a solid foundation for developing more humane, effective, and sustainable management strategies.

6.1. Theoretical and Managerial Implications

This study provides significant theoretical value by expanding knowledge on topics relevant to the education and business sectors, as it updates the literature on transformational leadership, job satisfaction, and organizational gratitude—concepts of great interest to academics and education professionals. Considering the scarcity of studies on organizational gratitude, this is believed to be a useful contribution for future research. Furthermore, it has been empirically demonstrated that transformational leadership is positively associated with the dimensions of organizational gratitude (gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity and as a moral norm) and employee job satisfaction. This study also enriches research on the dimensions of organizational gratitude and their association with job satisfaction.

Regarding managerial implications, the first consideration is the result of this research, which shows how transformational leadership is positively associated with the dimensions of organizational gratitude and job satisfaction. Based on this result, it is recommended that educational institutions select coordinators or immediate supervisors with transformational leadership traits when hiring staff. Since transformational leadership is a strong predictor of employee job satisfaction, the selection process can include relevant questions in exams and interviews to assess the manager’s (coordinator or other leadership position) morale, concern for employees, and the candidate’s goals. Educational leaders lacking these qualities should undergo training to develop transformational leadership skills, including providing support to employees at work and in their personal lives, fostering stronger team interactions, and enhancing their leadership skills and charisma. Scientific evidence supports that promoting active participation and leading by example strengthens job satisfaction, reduces risks such as stress and staff turnover, and contributes to greater alignment between personal and organizational goals. Secondly, educational institutions should develop training programs that foster a relational climate with employees, as this can generate positive effects, such as a greater willingness to collaborate with the institution’s goals and employee loyalty and retention. It is important to strive to build positive relationships with employees, promote a healthy environment among them, and consciously improve their perception of gratitude and satisfaction.

Furthermore, the results of this research have been considered, which show how the dimensions of gratitude toward the organization are positively associated with job satisfaction. Based on this result, the implementation of formal and informal recognition programs is suggested to highlight the achievements and contributions of faculty and staff. These can include monthly awards and recognitions, both private and public. Likewise, it is believed that organizing regular meetings to share important information, promoting a culture of open and transparent communication, listening to employee concerns, and discussing ideas and suggestions can increase the perception of gratitude and satisfaction. Likewise, incorporating gratitude practices into organizational culture should be encouraged, such as saying thank you at the beginning of meetings, creating gratitude boards for employees to publicly express their gratitude, and holding regular gratitude meetings.

It would also be beneficial to explore the impact of Human Talent Management strategies on this and to implement training programs for managers that focus on transformational leadership. Furthermore, we suggest that areas related to organizational development and employee well-being consider conducting workshops or interventions that focus on gratitude within the organizational environment, such as authentic recognition programs, promoting a culture of gratitude, and fostering positive relationships, which can strengthen employees’ emotional commitment and their perception of support from the organization. Finally, the results obtained can be applied to the field of training and education in the corporate world, where educational content can be developed focused on ethical leadership, emotional management, and the creation of more supportive and resilient work environments. Together, these initiatives not only increase organizational performance but also promote the overall well-being of employees, a critical need in a sector as vulnerable to challenges as education.

6.2. Limitations and Future Research

Although significant findings were achieved, this study has some limitations that are important to consider for proper analysis. First, the study was conducted using a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to examine how perceptions of job satisfaction, leadership, and gratitude toward the organization vary over time. In this context, concerning the educational field, we propose that future research use longitudinal approaches to analyze changes in teachers’ opinions and discernment.

Another limitation of the study was that the sample focused exclusively on Peruvian teachers from private institutions, which limits the extrapolation of the findings to different business, social, and economic contexts, as well as the consideration of institutions under public management. Likewise, while the use of Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) has facilitated the detection of significant relationships between emerging variables, this approach does not include a thorough analysis of the qualitative factors that could affect the transformation or reinterpretation of gratitude toward the organization.

The use of non-probability convenience sampling is also identified as a limitation. Although this methodology can be useful given the current situation, it limits the ability to generalize the results to a broader population. For future research, it is recommended to adopt stratified sampling methods or alternative methods that could improve representativeness and reduce the margin of error in the sampling process. These strategies would not only simplify data collection but would also facilitate cross-cultural comparisons by including a broader range of populations in different sectors or business contexts.

A significant limitation stems from the fact that only a self-administered online questionnaire was used. Although the sample was selected carefully and followed a rigorous methodological procedure, the anonymous nature of the method and how the data were collected could have affected the accuracy of the responses. This could be due to factors such as response bias or indirect participation of respondents, particularly in large samples. It is recommended that future research incorporate qualitative methods to triangulate the results and provide a richer and more contextual understanding of the challenges faced by teachers in Peru. Finally, a future study could add variables such as organizational justice, teacher effectiveness, and job happiness, which would allow us to observe their behavior in various educational settings.