2.1. Student Leadership
Leadership is the process of encouraging others to perform certain activities to achieve certain goals. Based on its components, there are four elements of leadership, namely the person who assists and is a leader, the person who is being assisted and is a member, the situation of the mobilization activity, namely the organization, and the purpose, which is the target of the activity being performed.
There have been a lot of leadership theories proposed by experts. The first theory that was developed was the trait theory. Leadership effectiveness is determined by the qualities of the leader (for example, being honest, open, friendly, and so on). Stogdil and Bass classified them into two categories, namely traits, which include assertive, influential, cooperative, self-confident, energetic, and responsible, and skills, which include smart, creative, fluent in speaking, and possessing conceptual abilities and social skills (
Lunenburg and Ornstein 2000).
Then, there is a type of leadership called behavioural-based, for which one of its theories is a two-dimensional leadership theory. The leader’s behavioural orientation refers to two dimensions, namely people-oriented, which emphasizes the peer relationship and trust, warmth, and harmony between leaders and members, and task-oriented, which emphasizes the task structure, preparation of the work plans, setting of work methods, and procedures to achieve goals. Based on several research results, it has been found that every organization does not effectively apply the same leadership style. Therefore, situational leadership is developed, including Fiedler’s contingency leadership theory, Vroom and Yetton’s normative contingency theory, Kerr and Jermier’s substitutes theory, House’s path–goal theory, and Hersey and Blanchard’s theory of situational leadership (
Hoy and Miskel 2005).
In later development, the success of leadership does not only emphasize the behaviour displayed by the leaders in the group, but the behaviour of the members in the organization is also important. For this reason, transformational leadership is developed. This emphasizes efforts to transform organizational values to the members. Idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration are the main dimensions of leadership (
Hoy and Miskel 2005). Idealized influence indicates behaviour that builds trust and respect in followers and accepts fundamental change in the ways individuals and organizations carry out their work. Inspirational motivation encourages and makes members have high morale to perform tasks and believe that an excellent organizational vision can be achieved. Intellectual stimulation stimulates followers to be innovative and creative. Individualized consideration pays particular attention to each individual’s need for achievement and growth. The leader provides support and encourages and coaches the followers. Leadership theory widely refers to today’s situation, which is used in this study. Moreover, transformational leadership has proven to be effective in increasing the performance of the members and the development of educational organizations (
Wiyono 2018). Higher education lecturers have to develop student leadership competencies. Therefore, it is necessary to understand what factors influence leadership. There are several research findings on which variables influence leadership.
Piaw and Ting (
2014) found out that school grade, school type, gender, age, working experience, and educational background influence the leadership style.
Mozhgan et al. (
2011) also proved that individual factors, students’ experience, and the university environment influence student leadership abilities. On the other hand,
Othman et al. (
2012) revealed that the key elements that contribute to a successful leadership style are inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and active management by exception. These factors refer to the dimensions of transformational and transactional leadership. Furthermore, the results of
Algarni et al. (
2018) showed that 24 factors influenced leadership performance.
Thanh and Anh (
2015) presented that traits and skills influenced leadership style and effectiveness. Based on those results, it can be concluded that individual characteristics affect leadership effectiveness. The individual characteristics can be seen in competence and motivation. However, a more dominant variable still needs to be investigated thoroughly.
2.2. Student Entrepreneurship Skills
Entrepreneurship is the process of doing or producing something new that is different from previous activities and is supported by the willingness and courage to take risks (
Vidyatmoko and Hastuti 2017). Entrepreneurship can be defined as a process of doing something (creative), being different (innovative), and daring to take risks as well (
Schimperna et al. 2022). The mission of entrepreneurship is to improve economic growth, employment, industrial structure, and the welfare of society. In addition, entrepreneurship also secures socially and ecologically sustainable economic growth (
Heinonen and Hytti 2016).
People who run businesses are called entrepreneurs. To be an entrepreneur, an individual needs to have an entrepreneurial spirit, which means the attitude, willingness, and behaviours of individuals to handle businesses or activities that lead them to put in the effort to find, create and apply new ways of working, technology, and products to provide services or gain profits. It is also shown by the characteristics of having a strong will to work with an independent spirit, being able to make appropriate decisions, daring to take risks, being creative and innovative, persevering, being conscientious and productive, and having a spirit of togetherness and business ethics.
Entrepreneurial spirit is related to the characteristics, intentions, ability, will, and behaviours of entrepreneurship, namely decision-making capability, innovation capability, social capability, resource integration capability, self-exploration capability, market insight capability, management capability, good psychological quality, and adaptability (
Yin and Wang 2017).
Lastariwati et al. (
2016) found fifteen entrepreneurial behaviours, namely being creative, being innovative, being independent, being responsible, being honest, being leading, being persistent, being disciplined, being cooperative, being action-oriented, being hardworking, being communicative, being risk-taking, being evaluative, and being reflective.
Sanchez (
2013) identified the specific personality traits linked to entrepreneurship, namely self-efficacy, proactiveness, and risk-taking. In another study,
Sutanto and Eliyana (
2014) identified entrepreneurial characteristics, which include: being honest, being innovative, being creative, having a vision of the future, persevering, working seriously, having good planning, and having a good reputation. Based on this theory and previous studies, it can be concluded that there are main dimensions of entrepreneurial spirit, namely innovation, challenge taking, hard work, being results-oriented, independence, skill in business, and being future-oriented.
Higher education institutions, including colleges and universities, need to develop their students’ entrepreneurial spirit. In addition, the quality of higher education contributes to the formation of students’ entrepreneurial abilities (
Alves et al. 2018). Entrepreneurship education needs to be improved in universities. Entrepreneurship is a very important aspect for the economic growth of a country. Entrepreneurship is a powerful driver of economic growth and job creation. When studied further, the development of entrepreneurs depends a lot on entrepreneurship education in educational institutions. Entrepreneurship education is one aspect that encourages rapid economic growth. There is a very strong relationship between entrepreneurship education and job creation and economic growth (
Banha et al. 2022). The main element of entrepreneurship education program content is entrepreneurial skills that enable students to be able to face market challenges, such as a sense of initiation, problem-solving, innovation, creativity, and teamwork (
Jardim et al. 2021). However, there is still a gap between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship education only emphasizes knowledge, lacking in providing real entrepreneurial competencies. Likewise, the learning methodology has not been emphasized on the practice and creation of an environmental ecosystem to create entrepreneurship (
Banha et al. 2022). Therefore, this needs to be studied in Indonesia, especially in universities related to the academic experience gained by students.
Student entrepreneurs are individuals attending award classes at university and conducting innovative and revenue-generating entrepreneurial activities. In the broadened concept it refers to all students involved in actively running any enterprising activities. They are creative individuals with a passion for helping others. University struggles to produce student entrepreneurs. Therefore, there are three missions affecting student entrepreneurship. The first mission refers to teaching that is based on the development of a proactive and innovative entrepreneurial character in students. The second mission refers to the research and relies on structural transformation to share and commercialize the university’s intellectual property. The third mission is to transform the university into a teaching, research, and economic development enterprise (
Schimperna et al. 2022).
When viewed more deeply, to be able to form students’ entrepreneurial spirit, many factors are thought to have an influence, both internally and externally. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the factors that influence it. To enhance the spirit of entrepreneurship, the factors that influence it are necessary to be examined further. The results of a study conducted by
Vidyatmoko and Hastuti (
2017) found that variables that influenced business success were classified into several factors, namely demographic, psychological, work behaviour, competence, organization, resources, technical assistance, and external environmental factors. In line with previous work, the results of Sanchez’s research (
Sanchez 2013) showed that entrepreneurship education influenced student business interests. Then,
Nieuwenhuizen and Kroon (
2002) found several main factors that determine the success of a business, namely the willingness to take risks, involvement in business, quality of work, knowledge, and skills, and entrepreneurial commitment. On the other hand,
Daim et al. (
2016) proved that gender and national origin affected the interests of student entrepreneurs.
Sutanto et al. (
2018) showed that five entrepreneurial mindsets influenced one’s entrepreneurial performance, namely innovativeness, competitive aggressiveness, risk-taking, pro-activeness, and autonomy.
Based on the results of those studies, it can be underlined that there are internal and external factors that affect an individual’s entrepreneurship skills. The motivation factor is one of the factors that is considered to be dominant in determining entrepreneurial behaviour. Education is an external factor that is also believed to have a strong influence on students’ entrepreneurial spirit. The level of the influence of these two variables needs to be examined more deeply. The relationship between the dimensions of leadership and the entrepreneurial spirit of students is also still a question.
2.3. The Achievement Motivation and the Achievement of Students
Two factors are considered to have a dominant influence on student leadership and entrepreneurial spirit, namely motivation and achievement. Motivation is a hidden power in human beings that drives an individual to act uniquely. Moreover, motivation can give direction and intensity to one’s behaviour.
There are a lot of motivational theories, including Maslow’s hierarchical needs theory which states five basic human needs, namely physical, security, social, needs of being valued, and self-actualization needs. Herzberg’s motivational theory suggests two factors that encourage humans to work, specifically, motivator factors, which include achievement, recognition, responsibility, progress, and work, and then hygiene factors, which include salary, position, the possibility to grow, policy and administration, work conditions, technical supervision, personal life, and job security. In addition, Vroom’s expansion theory mentions three determinants of employees’ work motivation, namely expectations, valence, and equipment, and McClelland presented the achievement motivation theory (
Hughes et al. 1999). From those theories, this concept can be classified into two categories, namely motivation, which refers to content and process theory. Content theory emphasizes the impulses that exist in humans, whereas process theory views motivation as a combination of humans’ needs and conditions to meet their needs (
Kowalsky 2003).
On the other hand,
Hughes et al. (
1999) classified it into four categories, namely approaches referring to the theory of needs, the theory of individual differences, cognitive theory, and situational theory. The theory of needs emphasizes human need factors such as Maslow’s needs theory, the theory of existence relatedness growth by Alderfer, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. The theory of individual differences emphasizes the differences in the forces of motivation within individuals, including Alkin’s achievement orientation theory, McClelland’s need for achievement (N-Ach) or achievement motivation theory, and intrinsic motivation theory. Cognitive theory emphasizes the process of awareness of an individual’s thoughts in deciding actions to achieve goals (for example, goal setting theory and expectancy theory). Furthermore, situational theory emphasizes the aspects of a situation that affect motivation, such as job characteristic models and operant approaches. Individuals who have high achievement motivation tend to be competitive, be responsible for solving problems, strive to achieve social acceptance, enjoy the task of receiving feedback, and like to take moderate risks (
Hughes et al. 1999).
Based on the classification, achievement motivation theories include the classification of content theory and individual differences theory. McClelland said that individuals with a strong need for achievement were competitive, liked taking responsibility for solving problems, strived to accomplish socially acceptable endeavours and activities, preferred tasks that provided immediate and ample feedback and were moderately difficult, and felt satisfied when they successfully solved work problems or accomplished job tasks (
Hughes et al. 1999). The characteristics of a person with high achievement motivation showed high orientation, such as a willingness to accept relatively high risks, the desire to receive feedback about their work, and the desire to achieve the responsibility of problem-solving (
Nasution 2010). Moreover,
Ajiwibawani et al. (
2017) indicated that success-oriented, responsible, needing feedback, taking risks, and working hard are the indicators of achievement motivation. Based on this theory and previous studies, it can be concluded that the main dimensions of achievement motivation are taking moderate risks, receiving feedback, calculating success, and integrating with the tasks.
The research results of
Wiyono (
2015) showed that learning motivation strongly influenced students’ academic achievement.
Pravesti et al. (
2020) also found that there was a motivational effect on the self-regulation of learning. Moreover,
Zhao et al. (
2018) found that students’ achievement motivation influences the adaptation of students’ cognitive control. The study results of
Wigfield and Eccles (
2000) also proved that achievement motivation influences task choice and achievement. Therefore, thorough research needs to be conducted to examine how far the influence of achievement motivation is on student leadership and entrepreneurial spirit.
Students’ achievement reflects the learning outcomes achieved by students in the form of knowledge, skills, or attitudes. They can be classified into two, namely academic and non-academic achievement. Academic achievement is achievement in curricular activities, known as grade point average. This is the result of learning in the form of knowledge, attitudes, or skills completed by the students, which is indicated by a value on the students’ report cards, while non-academic achievement refers to achievement in extracurricular activities, for example in comprehension, art, sports, and organization. Since achievement reflects the learning experience of students, it can be concluded that it influences the leadership and entrepreneurial spirit of the students.
Based on the results of some studies, it can be underlined that achievement motivation and achievement are considered as one of the factors that affect student leadership and entrepreneurial spirit. The curricular and extracurricular activities in higher education institutions are assumed to contribute to develop those two variables, but it is still a question that remains to be explored. Of the two exogenous variables, the variable that has the more dominant influence still needs to be investigated thoroughly. Moreover, the effect of leadership on student entrepreneurial spirit is also unclear. The study results of
Krauss and Hamid (
2015) indicated that academic programmes and academic years did not influence students’ motivation to lead in higher education, but campus factors and campus involvement influence their motivation. Moreover,
Rina’s (
2019) research results showed that leadership activities could increase the entrepreneurial spirit of students. The study results of
Jackson and Tomlinson (
2020) show that students who reported more positive perceptions of the current labour market were more likely to develop higher self-perceptions of employability. The students had a greater sense of control over their careers. However, the influence of students’ achievement motivation and achievement on their leadership and entrepreneurial spirit and the effect of the leadership on their entrepreneurial spirit remain to be determined. Therefore, it still needs to be proven empirically.
For this reason, this study was carried out. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of achievement motivation and students’ achievement on their leadership and entrepreneurial spirit, both directly and indirectly, to find dominant variables, and to explain the influence of the variables. Achievement is more indicative of student competence, while achievement motivation is more indicative of student motivation, which is more dominant between the two variables is not yet known. Thus, the results of the research will be able to reveal these two problems so that it can be used as a basis for increasing the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in order to produce new entrepreneurs.
The research hypotheses proposed are: (1) achievement motivation affects student leadership directly; (2) academic and non-academic achievement affect student leadership directly; (3) achievement motivation has both a direct and indirect effect on student entrepreneurial spirit; (4) academic and non-academic achievement affect students’ entrepreneurial spirit both directly and indirectly; and (5) leadership directly affects the student’s entrepreneurial spirit.