Studies on Air Pollution and Air Quality in Rural and Agricultural Environments: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Description of the Investigated Studies
3.2. Monitoring, Sampling, and Analytical Techniques
3.2.1. Instrumentation
3.2.2. Analytical Methods
3.2.3. Supporting Information
3.2.4. Additional Information to Consider
- i.
- Soil tillage: activity associated with a significant amount of primary PM emissions, which can vary according to environmental conditions (e.g., soil moisture) and to the specific tilling implement used. Tillage can also lead to the emission of pesticide particles previously deposited onto the soil through pesticide spraying or sowing of coated seeds.
- ii.
- Harvesting: one of the major sources of PM in agriculture, together with post-harvest activities (e.g., yield transport, storage, and drying).
- iii.
- Burning of crop residues: recognized to generate high emissions of greenhouse gasses and PM.
- iv.
- Sowing: this activity, due to using seed drilling machines, produces PM emissions. The emitted particles are generated mainly from the soil, but a small portion may also come from the seeds, which are abraded during sowing activity.
- v.
- Manure and fertilizer distribution: one of the contributors to primary PM emissions in the agricultural sector. In this case, the importance of PM emission from this activity is strongly linked to the composition of the generated particles, which includes bioaerosol emissions.
- vi.
- Spraying operations: both through the primary drift of droplets and secondary drift of evaporating compounds.
- i.
- Spray drift: After the application of pesticides, they may not fully reach the target point, and up to 30% of the applied pesticides can spread through the surrounding environment.
- ii.
- Secondary drift: Several weeks after the application of pesticides, these can evaporate from the soil and plants into the air.
- iii.
- Take-home exposure pathway: Farm workers may introduce pesticides indoors (e.g., via (i) shoes, (ii) clothing, (iii) skin, and (iv) hair).
- iv.
- Insects: Pesticides can enter the indoor environment through insects.
- v.
- Volatilization from indoor products: Pesticides can volatilize from indoor products, such as wooden furniture, fabrics, and carpets containing pesticides.
4. Conclusions
- i.
- Season: Considering the season during which S/M is performed could be of fundamental importance in the agricultural context, because the contribution of the various sources and activities can be different.
- ii.
- Region: The typical kind of cultivation of a region will have effects on atmospheric pollution concentrations because of edaphic and soil conditions as well as the type of activity required (e.g., mechanical or manual).
- iii.
- Cultivation type present at the S/M point: This aspect can be of particular importance, as different crops can behave differently, requiring different cropping techniques, which involve the presence of different pollutants. In addition, the environmental conditions necessary for a particular crop can affect the environmental concentrations of pollutants.
- iv.
- Activities performed before/during the S/M: Specifying the type of activity carried out and the manner in which the task is performed (e.g., mechanical or manual) may be an important determinant of exposure, even if the contribution of open field activities is particularly difficult to estimate because of the wide variety of field operations and crops as well as other parameters (e.g., climatic factors and pollutant emission sources).
- v.
- Presence and type of animal farms near the S/M point: PM concentrations are not only important within livestock housing but also in the surrounding space as, through the exhaust ventilation, air pollution generated indoors is released into the external environment. In addition, the particles emitted by livestock can be a carrier of (i) gas and odors, (ii) microorganisms and their components, and (iii) other bioactive components that may have effects on the health of the subjects living in the immediate vicinity.
- vi.
- Application and use of pesticides and/or fertilizers before/during S/M: due to the chemical products emitted, respectively, VOCs and bioaerosols.
- vii.
- Meteorological parameters: because of the recognized relationship between (i) high wind intensities, (ii) low precipitation, (iii) poorly aggregated soils, (iv) high-intensity agricultural activities and wind erosion in agricultural fields, which in turn can cause the resuspension of particles.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Borghi, F.; Spinazzè, A.; De Nardis, N.; Straccini, S.; Rovelli, S.; Fanti, G.; Oxoli, D.; Cattaneo, A.; Cavallo, D.M.; Brovelli, M.A. Studies on Air Pollution and Air Quality in Rural and Agricultural Environments: A Systematic Review. Environments 2023, 10, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10120208
Borghi F, Spinazzè A, De Nardis N, Straccini S, Rovelli S, Fanti G, Oxoli D, Cattaneo A, Cavallo DM, Brovelli MA. Studies on Air Pollution and Air Quality in Rural and Agricultural Environments: A Systematic Review. Environments. 2023; 10(12):208. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10120208
Chicago/Turabian StyleBorghi, Francesca, Andrea Spinazzè, Nicholas De Nardis, Serena Straccini, Sabrina Rovelli, Giacomo Fanti, Daniele Oxoli, Andrea Cattaneo, Domenico Maria Cavallo, and Maria Antonia Brovelli. 2023. "Studies on Air Pollution and Air Quality in Rural and Agricultural Environments: A Systematic Review" Environments 10, no. 12: 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments10120208