You are currently viewing a new version of our website. To view the old version click .
MDPIMDPI
Search all articles
Behavioral Sciences
Download PDF
  • Review
  • Open Access

24 April 2025

Effects of Social Media Use on Youth and Adolescent Mental Health: A Scoping Review of Reviews

,
and
1
Department of Psychiatry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
2
College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra P.O. Box GP 4236, Ghana
3
School of Medicine, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Behav. Sci.2025, 15(5), 574;https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050574
This article belongs to the Section Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Version Notes
Order Reprints

Abstract

Background: The impact of social media on adolescent mental health has become a critical area of research as social media usage has surged among youth. Despite extensive research, findings on this relationship remain inconsistent, with various studies reporting both negative and positive effects. This scoping review aims to clarify the multifaceted nature of this relationship by analyzing the recent literature. Objective: This review aims to analyze the current evidence regarding the effects of social media use on adolescent mental health, identify consistent patterns and discrepancies in the findings, identify gaps in our knowledge, and highlight opportunities for further research. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following Arksey and O’Malley’s five-stage approach. Searches were performed in PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus for articles published between July 2020 and July 2024. Inclusion criteria were systematic reviews, umbrella reviews, narrative reviews, and meta-analyses written in English focusing on youth/adolescents’ mental health and social media. The search strategy identified 1005 articles, of which 43 relevant articles survived the reviewer selection process, from which data were extracted and analyzed to inform this review. Results: The majority of studies linked social media use to adverse mental health outcomes, particularly depression and anxiety. However, the relationship was complex, with evidence suggesting that problematic use and passive consumption of social media were most strongly associated with adverse effects. In contrast, some studies highlighted positive aspects, including enhanced social support and reduced isolation. The mental health impact of social media use, specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic, was mixed, with the full range of neutral, negative, and positive effects reported. Conclusions: The nature of social media’s impact on adolescent mental health is highly individualistic and influenced by moderating factors. This review supports the notion that social media’s effects on adolescent mental health can be context specific and may be shaped by patterns of usage. A focus on longitudinal studies in future research will be useful for us to understand long-term effects and develop targeted interventions in this context. Enhancing digital literacy and creating supportive online environments are essential to maximizing the benefits of social media while mitigating its risks.

1. Introduction

Since the inception of social media, the relationship between social media and mental health remains a heavy area of contention, and social media usage and mental illness have both become increasingly prominent amongst youth and adolescents. Research demonstrates that more than 90% of adolescents possess at least one social media account, and this percentage shows no indication of declining (Kucharczuk et al., 2022). A systematic review and content analysis reported that in 2022, TikTok engagement among youth and adolescents increased the most globally among other existing social media platforms (McCashin & Murphy, 2023). Other popular social media platforms adolescents frequently engage with include Instagram and YouTube (Bozzola et al., 2022). The nature of social media applications renders them particularly enticing for adolescents at this vulnerable stage of development, as the socio-affective circuitry of the brain is rapidly developing. This may increase sensitivity to social information, the desire for social rewards, and anxiety about peer appraisal (Somerville, 2013).
Recent findings suggest that the mental health of adolescents is substantially influenced by their social media use (Weigle & Shafi, 2024); however, the association between social media use and mental health is highly complicated and multifaceted (O’Reilly, 2020). Mental illness accounts for over 12% of diseases globally and 23% in developed countries (Xavier et al., 2013). Specific to children and adolescents, 10–20% are universally affected by mental illness (Kieling et al., 2011). It is an internationally accepted notion that a relationship exists between social media and mental health; however, the exact nature of this relationship is still subject to ongoing research. There is a wide range of literature that highlights this uncertainty, with each study directly examining or addressing the relationship but collectively drawing inconsistent conclusions (Haddad et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2022; Sedgwick et al., 2019).
Results of a longitudinal study conducted among adolescents in the U.K. suggested a trend for a relationship of increased time on social media and diminished mental health (Plackett et al., 2023), although such an association does not necessarily imply cause–effect (Bozzola et al., 2022). Other studies have affirmed, through varied mechanisms, a significant and direct association between social media use in adolescents and increased depression, suicidal ideation, body dissatisfaction, anxiety, and other mental-health-related issues (Jiotsa et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2016; Vidal et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022). On the other hand, some evidence also indicates that social media may act as a positive platform that confers therapeutic benefits to individuals experiencing mental health issues by fostering healthy and supportive online communities, thereby preventing further deterioration of their mental health (Ulvi et al., 2022). This notion is consistent with other findings stating that the use of social media is a positive asset for mental health in that it boosts quality of life, social support, and wellbeing and reduces stress. Notably, some evidence indicates that for each hour of increase in social media use among adolescents, there was a 13% increased risk of depression, an association which was more robust for adolescent females than males (Liu et al., 2022). It is important to note that the quality rather than the quantity of social media use appears to be a crucial determining factor for the valency of this exposure and the risk/benefit relationship (Davila et al., 2012). In more specific terminology, problematic use of social media is what renders it a negative entity for adolescent mental health (Shannon et al., 2022).
Several conflicting theories exist regarding the relationship between mental health and social media. In light of this background information, we review and summarize this relationship with current evidence and highlight variables that lead to the diversity of research conclusions in the literature. It is important to note that our analysis examined evidence for effects of social media use per se; it did not focus on any interventions that may have been presented in the context of interactions with social media.

2. Methodology

2.1. Study Design

The design for this review of reviews aligns with Arksey and O’Malley’s five-stage approach to scoping reviews (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005): (1) develop the research question; (2) identify relevant studies; (3) select articles; (4) chart the data; and (5) summarize and report the results.

2.2. Identifying the Research Questions

This scoping review’s objective is to examine the scope of what is known about the impact on mental health outcomes in adolescents who use social media.

2.3. Identifying Relevant Studies

On 23 July 2024, a systematic literature search was conducted via electronic bibliographic databases, including PubMed (Public/Publisher MEDLINE (NLM journal articles database)), MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online), Web of Science, and Scopus Elsevier. The search was conducted using Boolean operators ‘OR’/‘AND’ between search terms. The specific search terms were (‘Social media’ or ‘Social networks’ or ‘Social platforms’ or ‘Digital media’ or ‘Social media platforms’ or ‘Social media networks’ or ‘Social media sites’ or ‘Social media apps’ or ‘Social networking apps’) AND (‘Adolescent’ or ‘young adult’ or ‘Youth’ or ‘Teenager’ or ‘Youngster’ Or ‘Minor’ or ‘Young person’) AND (‘Mental health’ or ‘Psychological health’ or ‘Psychological wellbeing or ‘Mental wellbeing’ or ‘Emotional stability’ or ‘Mental wellness’). Inclusion criteria were systematic reviews, umbrella reviews, narrative reviews, and meta-analyses written in English focusing on youth/adolescents’ mental health and social media. Excluded studies included gray literature, dissertations, preprints, and conference proceedings. Publication restrictions were applied (July 2020–July 2024) to ensure that, practically, the most current review literature was captured at the time of completion of data extraction. The July 2020 publication date was chosen to capture a period of dynamic change, as that date marked the rapid rise in the number of reviews published in this domain and corresponded to the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, which signaled a shift towards increased digital information use. This scoping review expanded upon previous reviews of the literature. It was adopted as the current knowledge suggests several inconsistencies in prior work concerning the role of social media in the mental health of adolescents.

2.4. Article Selection

Articles were retrieved from several databases and extracted to be imported into Covidence, a web tool for screening the literature. Duplicates were automatically removed. Two researchers independently reviewed the citations during the title/abstract screening and the full-text review phase based on a specific eligibility criterion. All discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus.
Studies were included if (1) youth/adolescents were the subjects of their study, (2) they were involved in the use of social media (e.g., Snapchat, Instagram, TikTok, etc.), and (3) studies were published between July 2020 and July 2024. Articles were additionally limited to systematic reviews, umbrella reviews, narrative reviews, and meta-analyses written in English. Articles were excluded from the review if the subjects of the review had pre-existing mental health illnesses, if the study focused on the impact of mental health on social media use, or if the study addressed dimensions of health other than mental health. Articles were also omitted if the study participants were adults or children.
We identified 61 articles for full-text review but, upon closer examination, excluded 19 articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria.

2.5. Data Charting and Extraction

The following information was extracted from the included articles according to the following domains: author(s) name, year of publication, total number of articles, review type, aim of review, participants, sample size (N), social media application(s), bias assessment, key findings, and recommendations.

2.6. Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

This scoping review summarizes recent evidence regarding the mental health implications of using social media. All of the relevant data were organized into tables and validated by two team members. The characteristics and results reported in each article are summarized below.

3. Results

3.1. Article Search Results

After removal of duplicates through the use of Covidence software, the search strategy yielded 1005 of 1458 studies eligible for primary screening through the search strategy in the electronic databases. From title and abstract screening of those 1005 articles, 63 studies were retained for full-text review. After full-text review, 20 studies were excluded, the primary cause being that the studies did not fall under the requirements of the review’s inclusion criteria, and 43 review articles met the inclusion criteria and were incorporated into this review. The PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) below outlines this in detail.
Figure 1. PRISMA diagram detailing the study identification and selection process. PRISMA, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses.

3.2. Overview of the Included Reviews

Overall, 12 included reviews were classified as systematic reviews, whilst another 12 reviews were classified as meta-analyses, and 2 studies were classified as both systematic reviews and meta-analyses. A multitude of other review types was also included (scoping reviews, multinational reviews, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, umbrella reviews, narrative reviews, qualitative literature reviews). The articles included in the individual studies were published from as early as 2000 to as recently as 2024.

3.3. Targeted Conditions

There were a variety of mental health illnesses identified, measured, and discussed in the reviews under the current search protocol. The objectives of the majority of reviews targeted the measurement of depression and/or anxiety (n = 17, 40%), suicidal ideation and/or self-harm (n = 6, 14%), and body dysmorphia (n = 5, 12%). A combination of various mental health disorders was measured and discussed in the remaining studies (n = 15, 35%).

3.4. Opportunities for Refinement of Research Questions and Strategic Intervention Proposals

A majority of reviews expressed the need for a larger quantity of longitudinal studies to be present in research for further analysis of the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes. Other studies recommended a varied set of specific research questions that would be beneficial for inclusion in the existing large pool of research questions on this topic.
In terms of problematic social media use, three studies suggested the implementation of intervention strategies to reduce the impact of social media use on the mental health of individuals. Intervention mechanisms included restriction of screen time (Damodar et al., 2022) as well as prevention and intervention strategies to lessen the functional impact on individual mental health.

3.5. Aim of the Reviews

The general objectives of the reviews were to assess the mental health outcomes of social media use in terms of youth and adolescent mental health. Some reviews analyzed this research question during the specific duration of the COVID-19 pandemic (n = 5, 11%). One review analyzed the relationship between time spent on social media and the effect on mental health. Another study investigated the specific use of highly visual social media, while another explored the impact of problematic social media use on mental health.

3.6. Number of Articles

The number of articles included in each review was not always reported, but it was an average of 33 articles per review when the number of articles was specified. Table 1 gives details of the articles included in this review.
Table 1. Data extracted from each article.

3.7. Key Findings

From Table 1 above, the review found mixed results, with both negative and positive outcomes associated with social media engagement. The majority of the review articles reported that frequent use of social networking sites (S.N.S). was associated with poor mental health outcomes. Seven studies reported an association between social media and both depression and anxiety (Damodar et al., 2022; Draženović et al., 2023; Keles et al., 2020; Marciano et al., 2022; Rathod et al., 2022; Schønning et al., 2020; Tibber & Silver, 2022). Thirteen studies reported a connection between social media use and depression (Arias-de la Torre et al., 2020; Cunningham et al., 2021; Haddad et al., 2021; Khalaf et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2023; Sarmiento et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2022; Vidal et al., 2020; Yue & Rich, 2023; Ivie et al., 2020; Piteo & Ward, 2020). One article each reported an association between social media use and depression, anxiety and stress (Shannon et al., 2022) and an associations with ADHD (Thorell et al., 2022). An association was also found between heavy social media/internet use and increased suicidal ideation or self-harm behavior (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020; Biernesser et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2024; Sedgwick et al., 2019).
Some studies also reported an association between social media use and heightened body image concern and dissatisfaction (McCrory et al., 2020; Moss et al., 2023; Ryding & Kuss, 2020), whilst another study (Sala et al., 2024) reported social media association with several mental health issues including: (i) depressive and anxiety symptoms, (ii) problematic use and addiction, (iii) eating behaviors and body image concerns, and (iv) deliberate self-harm and suicidality are among the identified risks to which adolescents are subjected. The study by Suhag and Rauniyar (2024) focused on social media and self-image- and eating-related activities, and reported an association between social media use and less satisfaction with one’s body. It was reported by one review article that increased social media use may positively impact adolescents’ affective and cognitive empathy and broaden their ability to communicate their feelings (Primack et al., 2022). This study also reported an association between social media and several mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbance. While many studies pointed to negative impacts of social media, Keles et al., reported mixed findings (Keles et al., 2020).

4. Discussion

4.1. Overview

This review of reviews analyzed the association between use of social media and the mental health of youth and adolescents. The results of this analysis largely affirm what is a variable associative relationship between youth and adolescent social media use and mental health. The nature of this relationship is reported as highly inconsistent between studies and highly complex and multifaceted, hence our description of a variable associative relationship, and multiple factors must be taken into consideration to disentangle the likely importance of specific contexts. Within this variable set of reports for the associative relationship, this review identified several consistent patterns between the studies, as described below.

4.2. Anxiety and Depression

Anxiety and depression were the two most frequently measured outcomes of social media use in adolescents. The majority of included articles in one review positively linked depression (82.6%) and anxiety (78.3%) with social media use. In 13% of articles included in the same review, a ‘dose-response’ relationship was noted between time spent on social media and depression and anxiety symptoms (Damodar et al., 2022). In several other reviews (Cunningham et al., 2021; Damodar et al., 2022; Keles et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Piteo & Ward, 2020; Prasad et al., 2023; Sarmiento et al., 2020; Shannon et al., 2022; Vidal et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2023), results of a similar nature were reported, adding further evidence to support these outcomes.

4.3. Active vs. Passive Social Media Use

Three reviews concluded that social media in and of itself does not inherently pose a threat to youth and adolescent mental health, and it is rather the problematic use of these applications that is harmful. These reviews articulated evidence for a significant relationship between problematic, addictive, and misuse patterns of social media use in youth and negative mental health (Piteo & Ward, 2020; Shannon et al., 2022; Vincente-Benito & del Valle Ramirez-Duran, 2023). One review indicated a higher strength of effect when considering the impact of problematic use of social media on depression as opposed to either time spent on social media or intensity of social media use (Cunningham et al., 2021). In a similar fashion, another three studies drew a clear distinction between the specific nature of social media use (active vs. passive) and mental health outcomes. Passive social media use is defined as observing content, nighttime social media consumption, and engaging in appearance-based activities, while active social media use is associated with cyberbullying or sexting (Prasad et al., 2023). This necessary distinction was observed in a study identifying that girls who made passive use of Facebook and boys who actively used Facebook were more likely to be affected by the negative impacts of Facebook (Frison & Eggermont, 2016). A similar study concluded that a cause-and-effect relationship between social media and mental health outcomes was too simplistic and that it is rather adolescent activity online (e.g., active vs. passive use), among several other factors, that defines this relationship (Sarmiento et al., 2020). It was observed that passive social media consumption had strong associations with depressive mood, social compassion, and greater body dissatisfaction, among other negative mental health implications (Course-Choi & Hammond, 2021; Ryding & Kuss, 2020), whereas active social media use was largely associated with increased wellbeing (Bottaro & Faraci, 2022). Several studies that reported the negative outcomes adolescents and youth faced upon social media use did not take into consideration the reason for the consistency of these results, which may now evidently be attributed to individual passive use of these applications. This would suggest consistency in the notion that social media use, more specifically passive social media use, is a large contributor to negative mental health outcomes among youth and adolescents.

4.4. Body Dissatisfaction and E.D.

Several studies affirmed increased outcomes of eating disorders and social media use (Schønning et al., 2020), attributing this result to obsessiveness with photo editing, misuse or intensive use of social media, and posting with a blurred demarcation of real vs. virtual presentations (Sharma & Vidal, 2023; Vincente-Benito & del Valle Ramirez-Duran, 2023). Fitspiration trends on social media also contribute to these negative mental health outcomes and result in the development of psychopathological symptoms in young people, including eating disorders (Cataldo et al., 2021). Several studies consistently brought forth evidence to suggest that when young people engage with social media platforms that emphasize outward attractive appearance, the result is heightened levels of stress and eating disorders (Suhag & Rauniyar, 2024). In a related fashion, studies that explored the photoshopping of images on social media and body dissatisfaction/body image in adolescents also unveiled negative implications (Sharma & Vidal, 2023; Vincente-Benito & del Valle Ramirez-Duran, 2023).

4.5. Suicidal Ideation

A specific relationship between suicidal ideation per se and social media use was not recognized as a prominent focus of the published literature based on our present analysis of reviews, which indicates an opportunity and need for research focus and synthesis in relation to studies in that context. However, one review identified evidence for a possible direct and independent association between excessive social media use and increased suicide attempts in seven primary research studies (Sedgwick et al., 2019). A correlation between time spent on Instagram and engagement in deliberate self-harm activities was also observed in a review by Moss and colleagues (Moss et al., 2023). It was additionally observed that total screen use is significantly associated with heightened risks of subsequent self-harm and suicidal behaviors among young people (Chen et al., 2024; Schønning et al., 2020), and the effects appeared to be greatest among girls (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020). In contrast, social media use was not significantly associated with self-harm or depression among boys (Santos et al., 2023). Chen et al. (2024) also provided a review of further evidence supporting these conclusions, finding that total problematic screen use, such as through exposure to and expression of direct self-harm (D.S.H.) content (Biernesser et al., 2020) and cyberbullying victimization, was associated with heightened risk of the development of future self-harm and suicidal behavior in young people.

4.6. Positive and Negative Effects of Social Media in Light of COVID-19

In light of the pandemic being within the required time frame of studies used in this review, several studies specifically analyzed the impact of heightened social media use during this time on the mental health of young people. Studies observed a negative impact of social media use on the mental health of adolescents, with the most frequently reported mental health illnesses being anxiety and depression (Draženović et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2022); however, another concluded a negative but nonsignificant correlation between social media use and wellbeing during this time period (Wong et al., 2022). This was attributed to the diverse moderators existing in the relationship between social media and wellbeing. To specify, the study noted that the tendency to use social media as a coping mechanism during the pandemic was negatively correlated with higher levels of wellbeing, which was suggestive of the fact that individuals with a higher tendency to use social media as a form of coping had a higher likelihood of experiencing poorer emotional wellbeing than individuals who reported a lower tendency to use social media as a form of coping. It is additionally important to note that an increased risk of addictive social media use was seen in individuals suffering from greater COVID-19 stress; however, it was also observed in two studies included in a review that social media had positive implications for mental health through humorous content and positive exchange (Draženović et al., 2023). It is also important to note that not all forms of social media were negatively associated with mental health during this time. Exceptions include self-disclosure in the context of mutual online friendship, one-to-one communication, and positive and funny online experiences, which alleviated feelings of loneliness and stress (Marciano et al., 2022).

4.7. Positive Effects of Social Media

Social media is often primarily associated with negative implications for mental health; however, it is undeniable that some positive implications can also be observed. Three out of twenty-five studies summarized in a review by McCrory et al. (2020) noted that there was a positive relationship between social media use in terms of duration of use and the wellbeing of young people. Social media is also credited for its benefits among individuals facing social isolation in that it may reduce isolation, and it is associated with feelings of support and social connectedness (Biernesser et al., 2020). Social media is also effective in its ability to prevent depression and suicide and ensure easy access to supports (Vidal et al., 2020) and by providing a sense of community (Abi-Jaoude et al., 2020; Popat & Tarrant, 2023). One review reported evidence that adolescents who sought social support via Facebook later reported improved depressive symptoms if support was received and, contrarily, worsened symptoms if support was denied (Frison & Eggermont, 2015). The use of social media has, furthermore, enhanced traditional mental health treatment, as researchers have used freely available data from social media to conclude whether patients are exhibiting suicidal and/or psychotic behaviors (Primack et al., 2022).

4.8. No Effect

Although the two opposing sides of the spectrum are heavily debated in terms of the relationship between social media and mental health, there also exists a middle ground where some studies suggest a null effect. Four of the twenty-five studies reviewed by McCrory et al. (2020) suggested a null relationship between social media use and mental health among young people.
It is evident that there are numerous contextual factors in terms of ‘confounders, mediators, and moderators’ that may explain the discrepant findings presented in the sections above (Blomfield neira & Barber, 2014).

4.9. Limitations

Although they were necessary, many methodological restrictions were also a large source of limitation in this review. Only articles written in the English language were included for consideration. This resulted in the omission of valuable information that may have been found in reviews written in other languages. This imposes a limitation on the results of this review, as well as their interpretation. Furthermore, the overall search strategy may have been biased in that several articles were selected from health and science databases; however, relevant studies may have been potentially acquired by searching other bibliographic databases. Lastly, several new terminologies are rapidly arising concerning mental health, social media, and even age demographics. This would inevitably affect search strategies, as potential sources of research could have been missed. In addition, this review of reviews focused on peer-reviewed academic publications and did not consider the gray literature. Although this is consistent with a scientifically rigorous approach, in the very fast-moving area of digital influences on mental health, there are undoubtedly numerous insights to be gleaned from gray literature sources (Yoshida et al., 2024). Notwithstanding these limitations, this scoping review has offered relevant insight into the mental health implications of the use of social media for youth and adolescent mental health.

4.10. Implications

The use of social media is practically inevitable among adolescents; therefore, this review has reiterated the importance of parental involvement and educational intervention regarding their use of social media applications. It is essential for schools and educational institutions to prioritize digital literacy and mental health education in order to equip youth and adolescents with the necessary skills required for them to engage with social media. Additionally, there should be heightened availability of accessible online mental health resources for adolescents by schools and community organizations. These could include, but are not limited to, support services, such as counseling and other online resources through social media, to offer targeted support to adolescents subject to the dual nature of social media. Lastly, it would be beneficial and effective for social media technology companies and mental health professionals to collaborate in order for social media platforms to invest in the development of features that foster healthy user interactions and avenues for mental health to be discussed so as to fortify mechanisms for users to report distressing content.

5. Conclusions and Future Directions

This review emphasized the multi-dimensional nature of the relationship between social media and mental health. It is evident that this relationship is highly complex and, therefore, cannot be subject to a straightforward verdict. This is reiterated by the countless articles that have addressed this relationship but, when taken together, have reached inconsistent conclusions. It has become apparent through this review that the nature of social media has the potential to be molded by the individual to whom it is subject. To specify, several moderating factors exist, which have been discussed in this review, that undoubtedly impact the mental health outcomes observed when adolescents inevitably engage with social media platforms. These factors are also complex in their nature and do not have universal implications.
It is imperative for future studies to execute additional longitudinal studies in order to emphasize the long-term effects of social media use on adolescent mental health. This is essential to provide deeper insights into long-term consequences. In addition to this, rather than broadly studying the effect of social media on adolescent mental health, longitudinal studies should place restrictions on the permitted activity of adolescents on social media during the period of their study. In doing so, researchers are permitted to effectively compare and contrast the mental health outcomes of different groups who engaged with different aspects of social media over a period of time, which may lead to positive advancements in the navigation of the relationship between mental health and social media.
By addressing implications and future directions, stakeholders can advance towards a more thorough understanding of the effect of social media on adolescent mental health and develop more effective strategies to offer support to young people in the present digital age.
In a final note, on 8 November 2024, the Government of Australia banned the use of social media for individuals under 16 years of age, citing adverse health risks associated with over-exposure to social media in young people (Government of Australia, 2024). This has been met with overall international governmental approval but much discussion amongst experts in this field. Such developments underscore the importance and need for clear analysis of evidence in this context. The bottom line from this review of reviews is that social media exposure may have positive or negative effects, but context is important, and we do not have a clear understanding of determinants of the net impact of social media on youth and adolescent mental health.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.A.-O.; software and validation, N.A.-O. and F.A.-O.; methodology and formal analysis, N.A.-O.; data curation, N.A.-O. and F.A.-O.; investigation and resources, N.A.-O. and A.J.G.; writing—original draft preparation, N.A.-O.; writing—review and editing, N.A.-O., F.A.-O. and A.J.G.; supervision, A.J.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Alberta Mental Health Foundation.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funder had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, the interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript or the decision to submit the results for publication.

References

  1. Abi-Jaoude, E., Naylor, K. T., & Pignatiello, A. (2020). Smartphones, social media use and youth mental health. CMAJ, 192(6), E136–E141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Arias-de la Torre, J., Puigdomenech, E., García, X., Valderas, J. M., Eiroa-Orosa, F. J., Fernández-Villa, T., Molina, A. J., Martín, V., Serrano-Blanco, A., Alonso, J., & Espallargues, M. (2020). Relationship between depression and the use of mobile technologies and social media among adolescents: Umbrella review. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(8), e16388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Biernesser, C., Sewall, C. J. R., Brent, D., Bear, T., Mair, C., & Trauth, J. (2020). Social media use and deliberate self-harm among youth: A systematized narrative review. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 105054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Blomfield neira, C. J., & Barber, B. L. (2014). Social networking site use: Linked to adolescents’ social self-concept, self-esteem, and depressed mood. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(1), 56–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Bottaro, R., & Faraci, P. (2022). The use of social networking sites and its impact on adolescents’ emotional well-being: A scoping review. Current Addiction Reports, 9(4), 518–539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Bozzola, E., Spina, G., Agostiniani, R., Barni, S., Russo, R., Scarpato, E., Di Mauro, A., Di Stefano, A. V., Caruso, C., Corsello, G., & Staiano, A. (2022). The use of social media in children and adolescents: Scoping review on the potential risks. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(16), 9960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Cataldo, I., De Luca, I., Giorgetti, V., Cicconcelli, D., Bersani, F. S., Imperatori, C., Abdi, S., Negri, A., Esposito, G., & Corazza, O. (2021). Fitspiration on social media: Body-image and other psychopathological risks among young adults. A narrative review. Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health, 1, 100010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Chen, Z., Liao, X., Yang, J., Tian, Y., Peng, K., Liu, X., & Li, Y. (2024). Association of screen-based activities and risk of self-harm and suicidal behaviors among young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychiatry Research, 338, 115991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Course-Choi, J., & Hammond, L. (2021). Social Media use and adolescent well-being: A narrative review of longitudinal studies. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 24(4), 223–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Cunningham, S., Hudson, C. C., & Harkness, K. (2021). Social media and depression symptoms: A meta-analysis. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 49(2), 241–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Damodar, S., Lokemoen, C., Gurusamy, V., Takhi, M., Bishev, D., Parrill, A., Deviney, M., Person, U., Korie, I., & Branch, R. (2022). Trending: A systematic review of social media use’s influence on adolescent anxiety and depression. Adolescent Psychiatry, 12(1), 11–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Davila, J., Hershenberg, R., Feinstein, B. A., Gorman, K., Bhatia, V., & Starr, L. R. (2012). Frequency and quality of social networking among young adults: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and corumination. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(2), 72–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Dharejo, N., Alivi, M. A., Rahamad, M. S., Jiaqing, X., & Brony, M. (2023). Effects of social media use on adolescent psychological well-being: A Systematic literature review. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 17(20), 171–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Draženović, M., Vukušić Rukavina, T., & Machala Poplašen, L. (2023). Impact of social media use on mental health within adolescent and student populations during COVID-19 pandemic: Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 3392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2015). The impact of daily stress on adolescents’ depressed mood: The role of social support seeking through Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 44, 315–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2016). Exploring the Relationships between different types of facebook use, perceived online social support, and adolescents’ depressed mood. Social Science Computer Review, 34(2), 153–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Government of Australia. (2024). Minimum age for social media access to protect Australian kids. Available online: https://www.pm.gov.au/media/minimum-age-social-media-access-protect-australian-kids (accessed on 10 January 2025).
  19. Haddad, J. M., Macenski, C., Mosier-Mills, A., Hibara, A., Kester, K., Schneider, M., Conrad, R. C., & Liu, C. H. (2021). The impact of social media on college mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A multinational review of the existing literature. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(11), 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Ivie, E. J., Pettitt, A., Moses, L. J., & Allen, N. B. (2020). A meta-analysis of the association between adolescent social media use and depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 165–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Jiotsa, B., Naccache, B., Duval, M., Rocher, B., & Grall-Bronnec, M. (2021). Social media use and body image disorders: Association between frequency of comparing one’s own physical appearance to that of people being followed on social media and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 2880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Keles, B., McCrae, N., & Grealish, A. (2020). A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 79–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Khalaf, A. M., Alubied, A. A., & Rifaey, A. A. (2023). The impact of social media on the mental health of adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. Cureus, 15(8), e42990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham, H., Belfer, M., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O., Srinath, S., Ulkuer, N., & Rahman, A. (2011). Child and adolescent mental health worldwide: Evidence for action. Lancet, 378(9801), 1515–1525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kucharczuk, A. J., Oliver, T. L., & Dowdell, E. B. (2022). Social media’s influence on adolescents’ food choices: A mixed studies systematic literature review. Appetite, 168, 105765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Lee, Y., Jeon, Y. J., Kang, S., Shin, J. I., Jung, Y. C., & Jung, S. J. (2022). Social media use and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in young adults: A meta-analysis of 14 cross-sectional studies. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Lin, L. Y., Sidani, J. E., Shensa, A., Radovic, A., Miller, E., Colditz, J. B., Hoffman, B. L., Giles, L. M., & Primack, B. A. (2016). Association between social media use and depression among U.S. Young adults. Depress Anxiety, 33(4), 323–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Liu, M., Kamper-DeMarco, K. E., Zhang, J., Xiao, J., Dong, D., & Xue, P. (2022). Time spent on social media and risk of depression in adolescents: A dose-response meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(9), 5164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Marciano, L., Ostroumova, M., Schulz, P. J., & Camerini, A.-L. (2022). Digital media use and adolescents’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 793868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Mazzeo, S. E., Weinstock, M., Vashro, T. N., Henning, T., & Derrigo, K. (2024). Mitigating harms of social media for adolescent body image and eating disorders: A review. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 17(101514563), 2587–2601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. McCashin, D., & Murphy, C. M. (2023). Using TikTok for public and youth mental health—A systematic review and content analysis. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry, 28(1), 279–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. McCrory, A., Best, P., & Maddock, A. (2020). The relationship between highly visual social media and young people’s mental health: A scoping review. Children and Youth Services Review, 115, 105053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Moss, C., Wibberley, C., & Witham, G. (2023). Assessing the impact of Instagram use and deliberate self-harm in adolescents: A scoping review. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 32(1), 14–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. O’Reilly, M. (2020). Social media and adolescent mental health: The good, the bad and the ugly. Journal of Mental Health, 29(2), 200–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Piteo, E. M., & Ward, K. (2020). Review: Social networking sites and associations with depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents—A systematic review. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 25(4), 201–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Plackett, R., Sheringham, J., & Dykxhoorn, J. (2023). The longitudinal impact of social media use on UK adolescents’ mental health: Longitudinal observational study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e43213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Popat, A., & Tarrant, C. (2023). Exploring adolescents’ perspectives on social media and mental health and well-being—A qualitative literature review. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28(1), 323–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Prasad, S., Souabni, S. A., Anugwom, G., Aneni, K., Anand, A., Urhi, A., Obi-Azuike, C., Gibson, T., Khan, A., & Oladunjoye, F. (2023). Anxiety and depression amongst youth as adverse effects of using social media: A Review. Annals of Medicine and Surgery, 85(8), 3974–3981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Primack, B. A., Perryman, K. L., Crofford, R. A., & Escobar-Viera, C. G. (2022). Social media as it interfaces with psychosocial development and mental illness in transitional-age youth. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(1), 11–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Rafiq, A., & Linden, B. (2024). Social media and self-concept among postsecondary students: A scoping review. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 27(3), 194–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Rathod, A. S., Ingole, A., Gaidhane, A., & Choudhari, S. G. (2022). Psychological morbidities associated with excessive usage of smartphones among adolescents and young adults: A review. Cureus, 14(10), e30756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Ryding, F. C., & Kuss, D. J. (2020). The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(4), 412–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Sala, A., Porcaro, L., & Gomez, E. (2024). Social media use and adolescents’ mental health and well-being: An umbrella review. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 14, 100404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Santos, R. M. S., Mendes, C. G., Sen Bressani, G. Y., de Alcantara Ventura, S., de Almeida Nogueira, Y. J., de Miranda, D. M., & Romano-Silva, M. A. (2023). The associations between screen time and mental health in adolescents: A systematic review. BMC Psychology, 11(1), 127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Sarmiento, I. G., Olson, C., Yeo, G., Chen, Y. A., Toma, C. L., Brown, B. B., Bellmore, A., & Mares, M.-L. (2020). How does social media use relate to adolescents’ internalizing symptoms? Conclusions from a systematic narrative review. Adolescent Research Review, 5(4), 381–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Schønning, V., Hjetland, G. J., Aarø, L. E., & Skogen, J. C. (2020). Social media use and mental health and well-being among adolescents—A scoping review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Sedgwick, R., Epstein, S., Dutta, R., & Ougrin, D. (2019). Social media, internet use and suicide attempts in adolescents. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 32(6), 534–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Senekal, J. S., Groenewald, G. R., Wolfaardt, L., Jansen, C., & Williams, K. (2023). Social media and adolescent psychosocial development: A systematic review. South African Journal of Psychology, 53(2), 157–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Shannon, H., Bush, K., Villeneuve, P. J., Hellemans, K. G., & Guimond, S. (2022). Problematic social media use in adolescents and young adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JMIR Mental Health, 9(4), e33450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Sharma, A., & Vidal, C. (2023). A scoping literature review of the associations between highly visual social media use and eating disorders and disordered eating: A changing landscape. Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(1), 170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Somerville, L. H. (2013). Special issue on the teenage brain: Sensitivity to social evaluation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(2), 121–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Suhag, K., & Rauniyar, S. (2024). Social media effects regarding eating disorders and body image in young adolescents. Cureus, 16(4), e58674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Thorell, L. B., Buren, J., Wiman, J. S., Sandberg, D., & Nutley, S. B. (2022). Longitudinal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents: A systematic literature review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(8), 2503–2526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Tibber, M. S., & Silver, E. (2022). A trans-diagnostic cognitive behavioural conceptualisation of the positive and negative roles of social media use in adolescents’ mental health and wellbeing. Cognitive Behaviour Therapist, 15, e7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ulvi, O., Karamehic-Muratovic, A., Baghbanzadeh, M., Bashir, A., Smith, J., & Haque, U. (2022). Social media use and mental health: A global analysis. Epidemiologia, 3(1), 11–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Valkenburg, P. M., Meier, A., & Beyens, I. (2022). Social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health: An umbrella review of the evidence. Current Opinion in Psychology, 44, 58–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Vidal, C., Lhaksampa, T., Miller, L., & Platt, R. (2020). Social media use and depression in adolescents: A scoping review. International Review of Psychiatry, 32(3), 235–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Vincente-Benito, I., & del Valle Ramirez-Duran, M. (2023). Influence of social media use on body image and well-being among adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 61(12), 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Wang, Y., Xu, J., & Xie, T. (2022). Social media overload and anxiety among university students during the COVID-19 Omicron wave lockdown: A cross-sectional study in Shanghai, China, 2022. International Journal of Public Health, 67, 1605363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Weigle, P. E., & Shafi, R. M. A. (2024). Social media and youth mental health. Current Psychiatry Reports, 26(1), 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Wong, J., Yi, P. X., Quek, F. Y. X., Lua, V. Y. Q., Majeed, N. M., & Hartanto, A. (2022). A four-level meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media and well-being: A fresh perspective in the context of COVID-19. Current Psychology, 43, 14972–14986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Xavier, M., Baptista, H., Mendes, J. M., Magalhães, P., & Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M. (2013). Implementing the world mental health survey initiative in portugal—Rationale, design and fieldwork procedures. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 7(1), 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Yoshida, Y., Sitas, N., Mannetti, L., O’Farrell, P., Arroyo-Robles, G., Berbés-Blázquez, M., González-Jiménez, D., Nelson, V., Niamir, A., & Harmáčková, Z. V. (2024). Beyond academia: A case for reviews of gray literature for science-policy processes and applied research. Environmental Science & Policy, 162, 103882. [Google Scholar]
  64. Yue, Z., & Rich, M. (2023). Social media and adolescent mental health. Current Pediatrics Reports, 11(4), 157–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Zhu, W., Mou, J., Benyoucef, M., Kim, J., Hong, T., & Chen, S. (2023). Understanding the relationship between social media use and depression: A review of the literature. Online Information Review, 47(6), 1009–1035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Article Metrics

Citations

Article Access Statistics

Journal Statistics
Multiple requests from the same IP address are counted as one view.
Download PDF
The Dark Side of Boys’ Compliments to Girls: Exploring Their Relationship with Sexism and Cyberviolence Towards Intimate Partners
Previous
The Impact of Choir Singing on International Students’ Sense of Belonging, Loneliness, and Wellbeing: A Controlled Evaluation of UQ Voices
Next