1. Introduction
Consumers are increasingly concerned about the environment [
1], and businesses have responded to these concerns [
2,
3]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the correlation between the willingness to purchase and the green behaviors of customers [
4,
5,
6]. Thus, many businesses aim to establish a green brand image to increase the distinctiveness of their environmentally friendly products [
7,
8,
9]. Rahmi et al. [
10] demonstrated that consumers are more willing to purchase from brands with a green image.
The role of social media in promoting green concerns and establishing brand identity has been widely acknowledged. Studies have demonstrated the profound influence of social media strategies on brand image [
11,
12,
13,
14]. In the sports industry, the brand image of corporate teams is closely linked to brand impressions, consumer engagement, and their emotional attachment to specific teams. This connection highlights the critical role of brand image in the success of professional sports [
15]. Ristevska-Jovanovska [
16] emphasized the criticality of social media as a tool for promotion, communication, and interaction among fans, athletes, and sports organizations. Utilizing social media in sports marketing can effectively generate brand awareness and foster supporter engagement [
17]. Therefore, establishing a green brand image becomes crucial for the management of professional teams, and is the central focus of this study.
A green brand image refers to consumer perceptions and impressions of a brand’s commitment to sustainability; it encompasses the awareness, views, and potential behavioral responses of consumers toward the brand [
18]. Bashir et al. [
19] highlighted that establishing a green brand image requires businesses to actively communicate their environmental commitments, promote eco-friendly products and services, and implement environmental actions. These actions include reducing one’s ecological and carbon footprint and engaging in sustainability efforts [
20]. According to Majeed et al. [
21], when consumers have a positive image of a brand, they are more inclined to exhibit positive behavioral intentions. In the context of sports, a sports team’s brand image is closely associated with brand impressions, consumer engagement, and the emotional connection of consumers to a specific team. Thus, the brand image of professional sports teams is crucial for their success [
15].
TikTok, an emerging and popular social media platform, has achieved notable success through its innovative features and unique business model [
22]. Its key differentiator from other platforms is its advanced “algorithm”. Central to TikTok’s appeal is this algorithm, providing users with tailored information and experiences [
23]. Lu and Lu [
24] indicated that users typically do not actively search for specific content on TikTok; instead, they rely on the platform’s recommendation algorithm to discover videos, which contrasts the active content search often required for YouTube. Users are drawn to TikTok’s easy-to-consume, knowledge-sharing video format.
In response to TikTok’s success, several companies have launched their own short-form video applications, such as Instagram Reels and YouTube Shorts, inspired by TikTok’s interface and functionality [
25]. TikTok’s greatest advantage is its amalgamation of powerful features from various social media platforms, resulting in a unique combination of strengths. Primarily, it stands out as a visual media platform, excelling in user engagement. Its algorithmic recommendation system is unparalleled, offering personalized experiences to users. Additionally, its mobile interface is tailored for smartphone cameras, and simplifies content creation and sharing [
26].
Managing social media is pivotal for brand image [
27]. With technological advancements, the significance of social media has grown due to its wide reach, and professional sports have recognized its value in connecting with fans [
28]. TikTok has demonstrated efficacy in social media marketing, particularly for sports organizations [
29]. During the COVID-19 hiatus, professional athletes turned to TikTok, frequently posting short videos to engage with fans and maintain player–fan interactions during competition pauses [
30]. Sports organizations have also increased their presence on TikTok [
31]. In 2019, the European football club Liverpool FC became the first Premier League team to join TikTok, using the platform to engage new online audiences, particularly younger fans [
32]. Although TikTok’s adoption in the sports industry may not have been widespread initially, its utility as a social media platform was established prior to the COVID-19 pandemic [
33].
Businesses not only promote their goods or services [
34,
35,
36,
37], but also emphasize their commitment to sustainability in their TikTok marketing. In particular, the inherent design of social media platforms to encourage virality helps companies disseminate their content [
38]. Through social media marketing, businesses not only profit, but also communicate their commitment to corporate social responsibility.
Word of mouth (WOM) marketing has been transformed, becoming increasingly central as a result of social media marketing [
38,
39]. Sadat [
40] demonstrated that brand image mediates the relationship between WOM and purchase intention. Agarwal and Teas [
41] also indicated that brand image influences purchase intention, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty by influencing perceived value. Maintaining a positive brand image also contributes to the enhancement of customer enthusiasm and stickiness [
42]. Moreover, with the increased use of social media by consumers, their sensitivity to and identification with the green brand image, conveyed by professional sports teams via TikTok short videos, have also increased. This phenomenon strengthens the brand stickiness of these sports teams [
43].
The aim of this study was to primarily investigate the effects of having a green brand image on green word-of-mouth (WOM), customer stickiness, and consumer purchase intention, with further examination focusing on the moderating effect of displaying green concern on these relationships. Moreover, this study explores how promoting a green brand image on TikTok can help professional sports teams promote green WOM, enhance customer stickiness, and reinforce purchase intention. Additionally, the present study examines the moderating effect of green concern on the relationships among variables in order to comprehensively understand the interactive relationship between a green brand image and WOM. The present study fills a research gap regarding professional sports teams on TikTok, with particular regard to environmental sustainability in such a context.
Specifically, this study investigates the effects of a professional sports team’s green brand image, as conveyed through engagement on TikTok, on green WOM, customer stickiness, green concern, and consumer purchase intention. The present study proposes eight research hypotheses that are then tested using structural equation modeling (SEM); in these hypotheses, green concern is posited as a moderating variable.
5. Discussion
The present study explored five concepts, namely the green brand image, green WOM, customer stickiness, consumer purchase intention, and green concern, and evaluated their relationships via the use of a conceptual framework. The hypothesized positive relationships (H1–H4) are supported in both samples.
In this study, H1-1, suggesting a positive relationship between a green brand image and green WOM, was supported. Fans of the Taipei Fubon Braves exhibited a highly positive response to the team’s green brand image. This reaction may be a result of their strong emotional connection with the team. Heere and James [
116] observed that fans of professional sports teams develop emotional connections, perceiving their favorite team’s symbolism as an expression of their own self-concept and identity. Therefore, by fostering these emotional connections with sports consumers, sports team managers can enhance the team’s brand assets [
117]. For example, Nike’s emotional engagement with consumers is evident in products such as Flyease athletic shoes, which stemmed from a narrative involving a child with disabilities, and resulted in a design that requires no shoelace tying [
118]. Khuong and Cable Car’s [
119] research underscores the influence of emotional marketing on purchase decisions. Therefore, emotional advertising imagery and targeting specific emotional images are crucial for achieving higher levels of consumer purchase decisions. Moreover, loyal consumers often identify strongly with a brand image due to emotional factors [
120]. This loyalty is pronounced among sports fans, who tend to establish emotional connections with their teams. When the Taipei Fubon Braves presented a positive green brand image on TikTok, it resonated more deeply with fans, thus enhancing their positive evaluations and the team’s green reputation. Conversely, non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans although not loyal, still demonstrated a favorable response to the green brand image, possibly indicating the general attractiveness of green elements to consumers. Hwang et al. [
121] highlighted that consumers’ concern for the environment affects their evaluation of a brand’s sustainability commitments. Consumers are more likely to have a favorable perception of a brand when its image aligns with their self-concept [
122]. Rahman et al. [
62] further confirmed that a green brand image positively influences green reputations, aligning with the findings of H1-1 in this study, as well as demonstrating a positive correlation between the green brand image of a professional sports team and a green reputation on the TikTok platform.
H1-2 is supported by the results of the present study. The Taipei Fubon Braves fans, being loyal supporters of the team, might have responded more positively to the green brand image promoted by the team on TikTok. However, positive corporate initiatives can also create a strong brand image and brand assets, resulting in increased consumer purchase intention [
123]. According to Grewal et al. [
124], consumer impressions of product quality are closely related to brand image. When consumers are choosing between similar products, brand image is often a crucial factor, influencing their purchase decisions due to time and knowledge constraints [
91]; this finding aligns with those of other studies. Among the non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans, who were not loyal to the Taipei Fubon Braves, the identified positive correlation indicates their positive response to the green brand image. Larasati and Octavia’s [
125] findings suggest that a positive green corporate image has a positive effect on the loyalty of green customers. When consumers perceive a business as having a favorable green brand, they are more inclined to purchase its products [
64]. The present study revealed that presenting a green brand image on TikTok not only enhanced team loyalty, but also increased the appeal of the team, highlighting the emphasis of fans on environmental consciousness. Fianto et al. [
95] also emphasized the effect of brand image on the purchase intention of consumers. This result aligns with the initial hypothesis, thereby supporting H1-2.
H1-3 is supported by the results of the present study. The Taipei Fubon Braves fans might already exhibit a high level of stickiness to the team, and the positive green brand image of the team on TikTok could have further strengthened their loyalty. According to Chen [
54], businesses should focus on building a strong green brand image, provide environmentally friendly products or services that meet consumer needs, and gain the trust of consumers in their environmental commitment, thereby enhancing the stickiness and market competitiveness of the green brands being promoted [
68]. Stickiness is crucial for a brand because it promotes consumer loyalty and repeat purchases, and increases market share and brand value [
126]. The high stickiness of the fans in the present study may be attributed to their frequent participation in team-related interactions on TikTok. The green brand image of the Taipei Fubon Braves could have resonated emotionally with these fans, increasing their alignment with the values of the team and, consequently, their stickiness. In terms of the non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans, who were not supporters of the Taipei Fubon Braves, they may not have developed long-term stickiness to the team. However, Hu et al. [
127] discovered that a key factor influencing customer stickiness is the psychological responses of customers, including their perception, emotions, and behavioral responses to a platform. Scholars have indicated that corporate social responsibility (CSR) has a significant effect on the intention of consumers to use eco-friendly products from a brand [
128]. A possible reason is that this group might be influenced by the Taipei Fubon Braves’ public commitment to CSR. Thus, the non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans might also have identified with this brand image. That is, the reinforcement of brand image could have played a crucial role in helping consumers to establish an emotional connection with the team. Thus, a team can design brand marketing experiences to increase consumers fondness for its brand and enhance its brand image, thereby increasing the likelihood of consumers making continual purchases [
129] and establishing an emotional connection with the team. This result aligns with the initial hypothesis, thereby supporting H1-3.
The support for H2 in this study indicates that an increase in green reputation corresponds to a more positive consumer purchase intention. Relevant research has established a correlation between reputation and consumer purchase intention [
77], which corroborates the findings supporting H2. Fans of the Taipei Fubon Braves, owing to their deeper emotional connection with the team, might be more influenced by the team’s reputation within their fan community or the wider public. Chaniotakis and Lymperopoulos [
130] observed that consumers typically share environmental messages about products through green WOM, affecting purchasing behaviors within their social and professional networks. Similarly, Mikalef et al. [
131] demonstrated that sharing product information and reviews on social media significantly influences the purchase intentions and behaviors of other potential consumers. Rimadias et al. [
132] observed that active brand promotion on TikTok often stems from previous purchase experiences or recommendations to others. TikTok, as a platform, effectively disseminates product messages, thereby playing a key role in the spread of online reputation [
133]. Establishing positive brand awareness on TikTok, through sharing engaging content such as product showcases and brand stories, can positively and significantly influence purchase decisions, thus enhancing green reputation [
134]. In the context of relationship marketing, a positive reputation results from consumer-business relationships and consumer loyalty [
135]. Therefore, a positive green reputation may reinforce the positive perceptions of the team held by fans of the Taipei Fubon Braves, thereby increasing their willingness to purchase team merchandise or attend games. For nonfans of the Taipei Fubon Braves, green reputation can be a crucial factor in their awareness and evaluation of the team. When uncertainty surrounds green products, consumers typically gravitate toward trusting and purchasing products that have received positive green reputation feedback [
136]. A positive green reputation may change their impression of the team, thereby increasing their inclination to support the team through merchandise purchases or game attendance. The findings are consistent with Keller and Fay’s [
137] assertion that a positive reputation engenders high levels of trust. When consumers hear others sharing positive messages about products, their propensity to make purchase decisions is heightened.
H3 is supported by the results of the present study. Lee et al. [
85] demonstrated that an increase in customer engagement increases the likelihood of consumers maintaining brand stickiness, thereby affecting their willingness to repurchase. This finding aligns with the results supporting H3 in the present study. The Taipei Fubon Braves fans’ active engagement on TikTok can be assessed using the indicators proposed by Gillespie et al. [
138], which include dwell time, frequency of use, and the depth of user engagement with a social platform; such an assessment can be used to evaluate their stickiness to TikTok. However, high stickiness contributes to improved interactions between customers and sellers [
139]. When consumers spend more time on a platform, they are more likely to make a purchase [
140]. Therefore, when Taipei Fubon Braves fans focused more on platform information, their purchasing intention was more likely to increase. The non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans might still be interested in the brand and might have developed stickiness due to the brand’s emphasis on social responsibility and sustainable development. According to Wang and Li [
141], when consumers perceive that the information quality of green advertising is high, the act of emphasizing environmentally friendly attributes can enhance the persuasive effect of green advertising, thereby influencing the decisions of such consumers. Thus, our results confirm the positive effect of customer stickiness on the purchase intention of consumers.
The results pertaining to H4-1 and H4-2 confirm that green WOM and customer stickiness play moderating roles, influencing consumer purchase intention via the green brand image of professional sports teams on TikTok. Studies have reported a positive relationship between a green brand image and green WOM [
62,
86,
87,
88,
89]. Given the argument that WOM communication, especially when emphasized, has a considerable effect on product evaluation [
142], we believe that the WOM communicated online through dynamic and interactive media platforms, such as the Internet, can significantly influence product evaluation. This phenomenon may involve brand image and purchase intention [
89], and it aligns with the results pertaining to H4-1 in the present study. These findings serve as robust evidence which supports the viewpoint that a green brand image has a positive effect on green WOM, emphasizing the relevance of a green brand image for eco-friendly products and services. That is, a green brand image can influence the WOM communication of consumers and, subsequently, influence their purchasing behavior and perceptions of a given brand. Thus, H4-1 is supported by the results of the present study.
Furthermore, studies have indicated that a green brand image positively influences the purchase intention of consumers [
92,
93]. Gounaris et al. [
143] demonstrated that positive WOM contributes to enhancing corporate image. Moreover, consumers who use social media more frequently tend to exhibit more sensitivity toward and identify more with a green brand image, thereby strengthening brand stickiness [
43]. According to Leong et al. [
144], when consumers spend more time browsing specific products, they tend to prefer these products and make impulsive purchases due to the excitement they experience while browsing the products. Stickiness can attract and retain users, extending the time they spend on an app; thus, it is a crucial metric in social media operations [
145]. Therefore, customer stickiness is a major research topic that should be explored in future marketing studies [
146]. Our results are in support of H4-2 align with those of other studies, confirming the moderating effect of customer stickiness.
The results of H5 indicate the moderating effect of green concern among the Taipei Fubon Braves fans. However, this moderating effect was not observed among the non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans. The present study confirmed that a green brand image and green WOM have a moderating effect when under the influence of green concern. Social identity theory provides a possible explanation for this finding, positing that the strong sense of identification with a brand among consumers may cause them to follow and participate in activities related to the brand; consequently, they become passionate supporters of the brand, which has become an aspect of their self-concept [
147]. Because the non-Taipei Fubon Braves fans did not exhibit this form of brand identification, they might not necessarily follow the brand’s philosophy. Chang et al. [
148] suggested that green advertising is more likely to attract the attention of and resonate with consumers if they are highly concerned about environmental issues. In the present study, Taipei Fubon Corporation positioned green concern as part of its brand image. Therefore, through their social identification, the Taipei Fubon Braves fans would likely have endorsed the team’s environmentally conscious behavior and exhibited corresponding behavioral responses, leading to the generation of green WOM (i.e., they recommend the team to environmentally conscious friends). Thus, H5 is supported by the results of the present study.
The present study makes several key contributions. First, by exploring the relevance of establishing a green brand image on TikTok, it highlights the emerging trend where brands use short-form video content on platforms like TikTok. Second, the present study increases our understanding of how professional sports teams can build and shape their green brand image on TikTok, thereby providing empirical support for the development of social media strategies that can help sports teams to positively influence their fans, specifically their acceptance of environmental and sustainability values. Thus, brand managers can develop a more profound understanding of the market and more competently navigate the social media landscape. Through the provision of innovative perspectives, the present study expands the current literature, enriching various concepts in related fields. These key contributions have both practical and academic implications, holding the potential to influence substantial breakthroughs in this field.
6. Conclusions
Utilizing the S–O–R theory, this study investigated the interactive relationships among stimuli, organisms, and responses. This framework enabled a nuanced understanding of how social media platforms, particularly TikTok, shape and influence consumer purchase intentions in the context of the green brand image in the digital age. The practical implications of these findings are substantial for businesses aiming to establish a green brand image on TikTok. For brand and marketing professionals, the enhanced understanding gained from this study is crucial in developing targeted strategies to attract and influence potential consumers, thereby gaining a competitive advantage in the market.
This study has several limitations. First, the representativeness of the sample may be limited because the participants were exclusively associated with a specific sport (i.e., basketball). Thus, generalizing the findings to other sports, such as baseball or golf, is difficult. Additionally, for social media platforms, the present study focused exclusively on TikTok, which exhibits distinct features and constraints that are not found in other platforms. Consequently, the results may not be generalized to other platforms or media environments, such as YouTube and Instagram, given the differences in characteristics and audiences among the various platforms. Thus, future studies should consider comparing multiple platforms in order to comprehensively understand the effects of various types of social media on specific topics or phenomena. Furthermore, subjective factors, such as the evaluation of the green brand image, may be influenced by individual subjective differences. Finally, because of the rapid evolution of social media, confirming the long-term effects and changes that participants experience, especially in terms of fan perspectives and loyalty, is challenging. Overall, these limitations should be further considered and addressed in future research.
Future research can expand in several directions to gain a deeper understanding of how professional sports teams can build brand influence on social media platforms. First, a comparative analysis of the effectiveness of green brand marketing strategies across various social media platforms can be conducted, helping to determine the efficacy of these strategies on each of these platforms. Second, exploring the effect of consumer characteristics on the green brand of sports teams can increase the understanding of the needs and values of diverse audience groups. Third, exploring the long-term effect of green brands on consumer loyalty and behavior can provide further insights into how a positive green brand image can affect consumer support and loyalty over an extended period. Fourth, analyzing the influential elements of TikTok content allows for the identification of the most impactful environmental messages and activities. Finally, conducting a comparative study of cross-cultural green marketing strategies can clarify the applicability of environmental messages and strategies in various cultural and geographical contexts. Such research will help businesses to better engage with their audience on social media when it comes to the increasingly central theme of environmental sustainability.