Psychosocial and Cultural Processes Underlying the Epidemiological Paradox within U.S. Latino Sexual Risk: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Sexual Risk Behaviors among Latina/o Youth
1.1.1. Acculturation
1.1.2. Epidemiological Paradox
1.1.3. Epidemiological Paradox in Sexual Risk Behaviors
1.1.4. Proposed Underlying Mechanisms of the Epidemiological Paradox
1.2. Aims
2. Method
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Eligibility Criteria
3. Synthesis of Review
3.1. Parenting Influences
3.2. Peer Influences
3.3. Familismo
3.4. Religiosity
3.5. Traditional Gender Norms
4. Discussion
4.1. Protective Parental and Familial Explanatory Mechanisms
4.2. Growing Support for Additional Underlying Mechanisms
5. Methodological Critique and Limitations
6. Future Directions
7. Implications
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Author(s) | Explanatory Mechanism | Sexual Behavior(s) | Design and Sample | Acculturation Measure(s) | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SOCIAL PROCESSES | |||||
Parenting Influence | |||||
Bámaca-Colbert et al., (2014) [63] | Supportive (maternal) parenting and conflict intensity | Age of vaginal sex initiation. |
| Generational status (1st, 2nd, and 3rd+) and language acculturation by BAS a. |
|
Cabral et al., (2017) [64] | Parental monitoring, parental involvement, mother nurturance, father nurturance. | Sex initiation by 10th grade. |
| Generational status based on parental and adolescent nativity. |
|
Cano et al., (2016) [65] | Family functioning (cohesion, communications, and involvement). | Inconsistent condom use. |
| Caregiver–adolescent acculturation discrepancies (measured by the BIQ-S b). |
|
Cordova et al., (2014) [66] | Family function discrepancies (i.e., positive parenting, parental involvement, family cohesion, family communication, parental monitoring of peers, and parent–adolescent communication). | Unprotected sex and early sex initiation |
| Parent and adolescent acculturation using the BIQ-R c. |
|
Deutsch and Crockett (2016) [67] | Maternal support; Parental control; Parent–child communication about moral issues, health consequences, and recommendation of birth control (BCR). | Sexual intercourse initiation; recent condom use; recent use of birth control |
| Generational status (youth and parent nativity) and language acculturation (language spoken at home) |
|
Guilamo-Ramos et al., (2009b) [68] | Maternal disapproval of dating. | Sexual intercourse intentions |
|
|
|
Guzmán and Stritto (2012) [69] | Parental communication of adolescent sexual behavior. | Sexual behaviors (i.e., kissing, making out with clothes on and with clothes off, digital stimulation, oral sex, vaginal sex, and anal sex). |
| Language spoken at home by adults. | Both acculturation and parental communication were unrelated to sexual behaviors reported. |
Hussey et al., (2007) [70] | Parental presence frequency at home | Sexual intercourse, condom use, number of sexual partners, engaging in sex while under the influence of alcohol or drugs, engaging in sex for drugs or money. |
| Immigrant status (1st, 2nd, 3rd+ generation). |
|
Jimenez, Potts, and Jimenez (2002) [71] | Attitudes toward sexuality and reasons for waiting to have sex. | Contraceptive use, ever had sex, ever been pregnant, and method of contraception used during first and last sexual experiences |
| Acculturation based on nativity (born in vs. outside the U.S.) and language spoken in the home. |
|
Karoly et al., (2015) [72] | Parent monitoring | Frequency of intercourse and condom use |
| Generational status by parent nativity (first vs. higher generation) | Greater monitoring of location was associated with less risky sexual behavior, but only for youth second-generation and above (β = ̶ 1.05). |
Killoren and Deutsch (2014) [73] | Parental monitoring, support, and strictness | Sex with a stranger, 4 or more sexual partners, sexual onset before age 15, common use of contraception that does not protect against STI or pregnancy. |
| Language spoken in the home and nativity (e.g., citizenship status). |
|
Killoren, Updegraff, and Christopher (2011) [74] | Parent–adolescent relationship characteristics (acceptance and time spent with each parent) | Intentions to engage in sexual intercourse |
| Cultural orientations using the ARSMA-II f |
|
Killoren, Updegraff, Christopher, and Umaña-Taylor (2011) [75] | Mother– and father–adolescent relationship qualities (i.e., acceptance and disclosure). | Adolescents’ sexual intentions |
| Nativity (born in the U.S. or Mexico), Anglo-Mexican orientation, and generational status (second, third). |
|
Minnis et al., (2010) [76] | Parental monitoring | Sexual partner’s risk characteristics: (1) had concurrent partners; (2) used alcohol/marijuana at least weekly; and (3) belonged to a gang or incarcerated during sexual relationship. |
| Immigration generation: 4-levels (recent immigrant; 1.5 generation; second generation; and third generation). |
|
Nadeem, Romo, and Sigman (2006) [77] | Maternal implicit and explicit communication about contraceptives. | Conceptual knowledge about condom use. |
| Language (Spanish vs. English). | Among Spanish-speaking dyads only, maternal explicit messages were associated with adolescents using more explicit terminology in describing their knowledge (β = 0.55). |
Pasch et al., (2006) [78] | Parent–adolescent conflict | Sexual experience (ranging from kissing to sexual intercourse). |
| Parent and adolescent language acculturation (measured by the SASH d). |
|
Prado et al., (2010) [79] | Social support for parents; parental stressors; and family functioning (parental involvement, positive parenting, family communication, and parent–adolescent communication). | Early sex initiation |
| Parents’ U.S. orientation and parent–adolescent U.S. orientation gap (measured by the BIQ-R c). |
|
Schwartz et al., (2012) [80] | Parent–adolescent communication | Engaged in oral, vaginal, and anal sex; unprotected oral, anal, or vaginal sex; and number of sexual partners. |
|
| Differential American practices, differential ethnic identity, and both adolescent and parent reports of negative context of reception each indirectly predicted number of sexual partners (β = 1.08, 1.18, 1.24, 0.73, acculturation variables, respectively) and number of oral sex partners (β = 1.06, 1.28, 1.17, 0.62, acculturation variables, respectively) through parent–adolescent communication. |
Schwartz et al., (2013) [81] | Family functioning (i.e., parental involvement, positive parenting, and parent-adolescent communication). | Sexual activity and unprotected sex. |
| Americanism and Hispanicism (measured by the BIQ g). |
|
Trejos-Castillo and Vazsonyi (2009) [82] | Maternal communication (general and sex); monitoring; and support. | Sex debut year, contraceptive use at first sex and type, STD contraction, multiple sex partners. |
| Immigration status (first and second) and primary language at home. | Neither immigration status nor acculturation moderated the link between maternal parenting constructs and risky sexual behaviors. |
Tschann et al., (2002) [83] | Interparental conflict (reported by parent and adolescent) | Sexual activity (ranging from kissing on the lips to sexual intercourse). |
| Generational status (first–fourth). | Adolescents’ risk behaviors were linked to several dimensions of parental conflict, when no other variables were taken into account. Language acculturation did not moderate this link. |
Upchurch et al., (2001) [84] | Parent–youth relationship (i.e., (socioemotional support, parental control). | Time to first sexual intercourse. |
| Language of interview (Spanish vs. English). |
|
Velazquez et al., (2017) [85] | Mother–adolescent discussion about sexual topics. | Condom-use attitudes and intentions to use condoms. |
| ARSMA-II f |
|
Peer Influence | |||||
Cabral et al., (2017) [64] | Friendship quality, neighborhood social ties, and peer norms of sex initiation. | Early sex initiation (by 10th grade). |
| Generational status (parental and adolescent nativity). |
|
Guzmán and Stritto (2012) [69] | Normative peer pressure | Sexual behaviors (i.e., kissing, making out with clothes on and with clothes off, digital stimulation, oral sex, vaginal sex, and anal sex). |
| Language spoken at home. | No significant differences were found in sexual behaviors for normative peer pressure (χ2 = 3.3, p = 0.20) and acculturation (χ2 = 2.0, p = 0.36). |
Killoren, Updegraff, Christopher, and Umaña-Taylor (2011) [75] | Deviant peer affiliations. | Adolescents’ sexual intentions |
| Nativity (born in the U.S. or Mexico) and generational status. |
|
Prado et al., (2010) [79] | Perceived peer sexual behavior. | Early sex initiation |
| Parents’ U.S. orientation and parent–adolescent U.S. orientation gap (measured by the BIQ-R c). |
|
CULTURAL PROCESSES | |||||
Familismo | |||||
Cano et al., (2016) [65] | Family functioning. | Inconsistent condom use. |
| Caregiver–adolescent acculturation discrepancies (i.e., cultural practices, values, and identities). |
|
Cordova et al., (2014) [66] | Family functioning. | Unprotected sex and early sex initiation. |
| Parent and adolescent acculturation using the BIQ-R c. |
|
Espinosa-Hernández et al. (2013) [86] | Familism. | Making out, receiving and performing oral sex, and vaginal sex. |
| Nativity (born in vs. outside the U.S.) and language use (BAS a). |
|
Guilamo-Ramos et al., (2009a) [68] | Familismo and mother’s expectations of familismo. | Sexual initiation; condom use at last sex; sexual activity in the past year; number of sex partners; and pregnancy history. |
|
|
|
Guilamo-Ramos et al., (2009b) [87] | Familismo. | Intentions to have sexual Intercourse |
| Mother acculturation (SASH d) and adolescent acculturation (SASH-Y e). |
|
Minnis et al., (2010) [76] | Familism | Sexual partner’s risk characteristics: (1) had concurrent partners; (2) used alcohol and/or marijuana at least weekly; and (3) belonged to a gang or was incarcerated during their sexual relationship. |
| Immigration generation (recent immigrant; 1.5 generation; second; and third generation). | Familism did not mediate the relationship between immigrant generation and either of the two partner risks for which significant differences by generation were found (i.e., partner used alcohol/marijuana frequently OR = 1.0; and partner gang affiliated/incarcerated OR = 1.1). |
Schwartz et al. (2014) [88] | Cultural values of individualism and collectivism. | Number of oral sex and vaginal/anal sex partners, and unprotected sex. |
| Years in the U.S. (covariate). |
|
Velasquez et al., (2017) [85] | Familismo | Condom-use attitudes and intentions to use condoms. |
| ARSMA-II f. |
|
Religiosity | |||||
Adam et al., (2005) [89] | Religiosity | Onset of sexual intercourse. |
| Primary language spoken. |
|
Edwards et al., (2008) [90] | Religiosity including traditional attitudes on sexuality. | Ever being sexually active, number of sexual partners, and age of sexual debut. |
| Interview language preference (assimilated = English preference; unassimilated = Spanish preference). | Unassimilated adolescents who held religion as very important, attended church at least once a week, and had traditional attitudes on sexuality were less likely to ever have had sex, more likely to have had fewer sexual partners in the past 12 months (F = 5.21, 5.62, 6.73, religiosity predictors, respectively) and in their lifetime (F = 5.96, 6.42, 5.54, religiosity predictors, respectively), and to have had a later age at coital debut (F = 4.89, 9.20, 14.96 religiosity predictors, respectively). |
Ertl et al., (2018) [91] | Positive religious coping | Condom use, number of sexual partners, and sex under the influence of alcohol |
| Time in the U.S. and the SMAS i. |
|
Guilamo-Ramos et al., (2005) [92] | Religiosity and religious affiliation | Virgin status, vaginal intercourse, birth control/condom use at most recent intercourse, and pregnancy. |
| Language spoken and length of time in the U.S. |
|
Nadeem, Romo, and Sigman (2006) [77] | Religion and religiosity (Catholic vs. non-Catholic) | Knowledge about condom use. |
| Language (Spanish vs. English). | No link was found between maternal communication and language, religiosity, and religion (Catholic vs. non-Catholic). |
Raffaelli, Zamboanga, and Carlo (2005) [93] | Religiousness | Sexual behaviors (voluntary and involuntary) |
| Nativity, childhood and current language, and ethnic identity (using the MEIM h). |
|
Smith (2015) [94] | Intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity. | Early sexual debut; number of sex partners; condom use; sex with an intravenous drug user; tested for STIs; and sex under the Influence of alcohol/drugs. |
| Linguistic acculturation (language spoken at home and language used for survey). |
|
Traditional Gender Norms | |||||
Deardorff et al., (2010) [58] | Marianismo (importance of female virginity). Machismo (importance placed of satisfying sexual needs). | Age at sex initiation (vaginal and anal), number of sexual partners and frequency of condom use |
| Language use (BAS a). |
|
Deardorff et al., (2013) [95] | Sexual values (e.g., considering sexual talk disrespectful and female virginity important) | Condom negotiation strategies to engender or avoid condom use. |
| Nativity and linguistic acculturation (assessed using subscale of the BAS a). |
|
Ertl et al., (2018) [91] | Mariansimo (pillar of family and chastity) | Condom use, number of sexual partners, and sex under the influence of alcohol |
| Time in the U.S. and the Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS) i assessed changes in cultural practices. |
|
Espinosa-Hernández et al., (2013) [86] | Importance of female virginity. | Timing of sexual behaviors (making out, receiving and performing oral sex, and vaginal sex). |
| Nativity and language use measured by the BAS a. |
|
Kaplan, Erickson, and Juarez-Reyes (2002) [61] | Gender role orientation | Age at first intercourse, number of lifetime sexual partners, and number of pregnancies. |
| Linguistic acculturation (preferred language for speaking, reading, and writing). |
|
Velazquez et al., (2017) [85] |
| Condom-use attitudes and intentions to use condoms in the future. |
| ARSMA-II f |
|
Acculturation Scale | # of Items (Subscales) | Description |
---|---|---|
a Bidimensional Acculturation Scale [13]. | 24 (2) | Measures two major dimensions of acculturation (Hispanic and non-Hispanic) using 12 items (per cultural domain) measuring 3 language-related areas (English media use, language use, and proficiency). |
b Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire-Short Version [96] | 24 (2) | Consists of 12 items assessing U.S. practices (e.g., speaking English, eating U.S. foods) and 12 items assessing Hispanic practices (e.g., speaking Spanish, eating Hispanic foods). |
c Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire-Revised [97]. | 42 (2) | Measures the level of orientation toward American (21 items) and Hispanic (21 items) cultures in terms of both (a) comfort with and enjoyment of American and Hispanic cultural practices (e.g., comfort and use of language, food, and traditions) and (b) how much participants would want or like to utilize American and Hispanic cultural practices. |
d Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics [98]. | 12 (3) | Measures 3 aspects of acculturation: (a) language use (5 items), (b) media use (3), and (c) ethnic social relations (4 items). |
e Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanic Youth [99]. | 12 (3) | Measures 3 dimensions of acculturation in Hispanic youth: (a) extrafamilial language use (3 items), (b) familial language use (6 items), and (c) ethnic social relations (2 items). |
f Acculturation rating scale for Mexican Americans -II (ARSMA-II) [14]. | 30 (2) | Measures behavioral and affective aspects of acculturation. Two subscales (measuring integration and assimilation, as well as marginalization and separation) capturing orientations to Anglo (13 items) and Mexican (17 items) culture independently. Assesses four domains: (a) language use and preference, (b) ethnic identity and classification, (c) cultural heritage and ethnic behaviors, and (d) ethnic interaction. |
g Bicultural Involvement Questionnaire [100]. | 42 (21) | Measures language use and involvement in both Latino and mainstream American activities. It yields two sets of scores to derive a measure of bicultural involvement, with individuals who are highly involved in both cultures scoring highest on the scale. A total of 21 items assess U.S. practices (e.g., speaking English, eating American food, associating with American friends), and the other 21 items assess Hispanic practices (e.g., speaking Spanish, eating Hispanic food, associating with Hispanic friends). |
h Multi-Ethnic Identity Measure [101]. | 15 (2) | Measures ethnic identity based on the elements that are common across groups so that it can be used with all ethnic groups. Comprised of 2 factors, ethnic identity search (5 items; a developmental and cognitive component) and affirmation, belonging, and commitment (7 items; an affective component). Three items are used only for the purposes of identification and categorization by ethnicity. |
i Stephenson Multigroup Acculturation Scale (SMAS) [102]. | 32 (2) | Measures the strength of practices in one’s heritage culture and U.S. culture. Created to measure engagement in cultural practices among members of any ethnic group and not one specific group. Exploratory factor analyses generated a 2-factor solution from the 32-item questionnaire: ethnic society immersion and dominant society immersion. |
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Cabral, P.; Chinn, M.; Mack, J.; Costarelli, M.; Ross, E.; Henes, E.; Steck, L.; Williams, A.J.K.; Lee, Y.B.; Fretes, S.; et al. Psychosocial and Cultural Processes Underlying the Epidemiological Paradox within U.S. Latino Sexual Risk: A Systematic Review. Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 226. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030226
Cabral P, Chinn M, Mack J, Costarelli M, Ross E, Henes E, Steck L, Williams AJK, Lee YB, Fretes S, et al. Psychosocial and Cultural Processes Underlying the Epidemiological Paradox within U.S. Latino Sexual Risk: A Systematic Review. Behavioral Sciences. 2023; 13(3):226. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030226
Chicago/Turabian StyleCabral, Patricia, Miya Chinn, Jasmine Mack, Miari Costarelli, Emma Ross, Ethan Henes, Lily Steck, Alika Jay Ka’imipono Williams, Yoo Bin Lee, Sofia Fretes, and et al. 2023. "Psychosocial and Cultural Processes Underlying the Epidemiological Paradox within U.S. Latino Sexual Risk: A Systematic Review" Behavioral Sciences 13, no. 3: 226. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030226
APA StyleCabral, P., Chinn, M., Mack, J., Costarelli, M., Ross, E., Henes, E., Steck, L., Williams, A. J. K., Lee, Y. B., Fretes, S., Fernandez, G., Garcia, L., Sato, L., Patrocinio, Y., & Shah, D. (2023). Psychosocial and Cultural Processes Underlying the Epidemiological Paradox within U.S. Latino Sexual Risk: A Systematic Review. Behavioral Sciences, 13(3), 226. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13030226