The Influence of Classroom Size and Window View on Young Children’s Executive Functions and Physiological Responses, Based on VR Technology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Impact of Visual Exposure to Nature on Humans
1.2. Impact of Room Size on Humans
1.3. Research Questions and Hypotheses
- RQ1.
- Does classroom size (large vs. small) influence young children’s performance in EF tasks or their physiological responses (i.e., cortisol and HRV)?
- RQ1.1.
- Does classroom size (large vs. small) influence young children’s performance in EF tasks?
- RQ1.2.
- Does classroom size (large vs. small) influence young children’s physiological responses (i.e., cortisol and HRV)?
- RQ2.
- Does window view (nature vs. built) influence young children’s performance in EF tasks or their physiological responses (i.e., cortisol and HRV)?
- RQ2.1.
- Does window view (nature vs. built) influence young children’s performance in EF tasks?
- RQ2.2.
- Does window view (nature vs. built) influence young children’s physiological responses (i.e., cortisol and HRV)?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Procedures
2.2.1. VR Development and Equipment
2.2.2. VR Classroom Design Conditions
2.2.3. Experimental Procedures
2.3. Measures
2.4. Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlational Analysis
3.2. RQ 1.1: Classroom Size (Large vs. Small) and Children’s Performance on EF Tasks
3.3. RQ 1.2: Classroom Size (Large vs. Small) and Children’s Cortisol and HRV
3.4. RQ 2.1: Window View (Nature vs. Built) and Children’s Performance on EF Tasks
3.5. RQ 2.2: Window View (Nature vs. Built) and Children’s Cortisol and HRV
4. Discussion
4.1. The Impact of Classroom Size and Window View on Young Children’s EFs
4.2. Physiological Responses in Relation to VR Conditions and Children’s EFs
4.3. Limitations and Future Studies
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Surg | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
2. NE | −0.31 *** | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
3. EC | 0.04 | −0.15 | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
4. Pre-DS | −0.09 | −0.03 | 0.10 | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
5. Post-DS | −0.11 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.53 *** | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
6. Pre-CB | −0.11 | 0.06 | −0.10 | 0.08 | 0.11 | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
7. Post-CB | −0.28 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.18 * | 0.49 *** | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
8. Pre-DCCS | 0.07 | −0.08 | −0.02 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.19 * | 0.18 * | − | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
9. Post-DCCS | 0.08 | −0.12 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.17 * | 0.08 | 0.43 *** | − | − | − | − | − | − | ||||
10. Pre-Corti | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.00 | − | − | − | − | |||||
11. Post-Corti | −0.04 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.14 | 0.07 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.76 *** | − | − | − | − | ||||
12. SDNN | −0.04 | −0.07 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.11 | −0.05 | 0.03 | 0.00 | −0.14 | 0.18 * | 0.04 | |||||||
13. NN50 | 0.03 | −0.13 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.07 | −0.14 | −0.08 | −0.13 | −0.09 | 0.06 | −0.00 | 0.70 *** | ||||||
14. pNN50 | 0.04 | −0.01 | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −0.08 | −0.03 | −0.13 | −0.05 | 0.13 | 0.04 | 0.73 *** | 0.82 *** | |||||
15. RMSSD | −0.03 | −0.04 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.09 | −0.04 | 0.04 | 0.01 | −0.13 | 0.19 | 0.04 | 0.99 *** | 0.65 *** | 0.73 *** | ||||
16. FE | 0.03 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.09 | −0.03 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.12 | − | − | − |
17. ME | 0.06 | 0.04 | −0.08 | 0.16 | 0.13 | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.08 | 0.00 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.00 | 0.42 *** | − | − |
18. Income | −0.05 | −0.11 | 0.01 | 0.17 * | 0.16+ | −0.01 | 0.11 | −0.01 | −0.00 | 0.25 ** | 0.14 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.26 ** | 0.29 *** | − |
19. Child sex | −0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 *** | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.12 | −0.06 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.21 * | 0.13 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.20 * |
N | M | SD | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperament | |||||
Surgency | 141 | 4.15 | 0.75 | 2.33 | 6.42 |
Negative emotionality | 141 | 3.86 | 0.67 | 2.00 | 5.67 |
Effortful control | 141 | 5.54 | 0.66 | 3.25 | 6.92 |
Executive Functions | |||||
Digit span (pre) | 141 | 3.50 | 0.95 | 0 | 6 |
Digit span (post) | 141 | 3.67 | 0.97 | 2 | 7 |
Corsi block (pre) | 141 | 3.18 | 1.32 | 0 | 6 |
Corsi block (post) | 141 | 3.06 | 1.43 | 0 | 7 |
DCCS (pre) | 141 | 28.68 | 3.92 | 15.00 | 36.00 |
DCCS (post) | 141 | 29.74 | 3.66 | 20.00 | 36.00 |
Room Size | Window View | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Large (n = 34) | Small (n = 35) | Nature (n = 34) | Built (n = 38) | ||
M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | M (SD) | ||
Digit Span | Pre | 3.67 (0.68) | 3.57 (0.88) | 3.50 (1.05) | 3.26 (1.08) |
Post | 3.79 (0.97) | 3.65 (0.93) | 3.76 (1.13) | 3.50 (0.86) | |
Corsi block | Pre | 3.12 (1.45) | 3.66 (1.13) | 3.18 (1.35) | 2.79 (1.21) |
Post | 3.29 (1.40) | 3.14 (1.42) | 3.14 (1.37) | 2.71 (1.50) | |
DCCS | Pre | 28.85 (3.70) | 29.57 (4.05) | 28.26 (4.26) | 28.08 (3.67) |
Post | 30.68 (3.51) | 29.26 (3.57) | 29.76 (3.54) | 29.32 (3.97) | |
Cortisol | Pre | 7.19 (3.55) | 6.47 (2.77) | 6.49 (2.83) | 5.83 (2.48) |
Post | 6.21 (2.45) | 5.77 (2.01) | 5.81 (2.32) | 5.55 (3.01) | |
HRV | SDNN (ms) | 127.78 | 95.21 | 98.63 | 99.75 |
NN50 (ms) | 39.88 | 31.55 | 34.17 | 30.62 | |
pNN50 (%) | 0.19 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.16 | |
RMSSD (ms) | 164.62 | 121.09 | 124.40 | 120.73 |
Source | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F-Value | p-Value | ηp2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable: Post-digit span | ||||||
Model | 9.46 | 2 | 4.73 | 5.97 | 0.00 ** | 0.15 |
Classroom size | 0.13 | 1 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.68 | 0.00 |
Pre-digit span | 9.13 | 1 | 9.14 | 11.53 | 0.00 ** | 0.15 |
Residual | 52.31 | 66 | 0.79 | |||
Total | 61.77 | 68 | 0.91 | |||
Dependent variable: Post-Corsi block | ||||||
Model | 33.25 | 2 | 16.63 | 9.92 | 0.00 *** | 0.23 |
Classroom size | 4.55 | 1 | 4.55 | 2.71 | 0.10 † | 0.04 |
Pre-Corsi block | 32.28 | 1 | 32.28 | 19.25 | 0.00 *** | 0.23 |
Residual | 110.66 | 66 | 1.68 | |||
Total | 143.91 | 68 | 2.12 | |||
Dependent variable: Post-DCCS | ||||||
Model | 157.49 | 2 | 78.74 | 7.26 | 0.00 ** | 0.18 |
Classroom size | 47.66 | 1 | 47.66 | 4.40 | 0.04 * | 0.06 |
Pre-DCCS | 122.74 | 1 | 122.74 | 11.32 | 0.00 ** | 0.15 |
Residual | 715.38 | 66 | 10.84 | |||
Total | 872.87 | 68 | 12.84 | |||
Dependent variable: Post-cortisol | ||||||
Model | 220.32 | 2 | 110.16 | 61.21 | 0.00 ** | 0.65 |
Classroom size | 0.014 | 1 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.93 | 0.00 |
Pre-cortisol | 217.08 | 1 | 217.08 | 120.62 | 0.00 *** | 0.65 |
Residual | 118.78 | 66 | 1.80 | |||
Total | 339.10 | 68 | 4.99 |
Source | Sum of Squares | df | Mean Square | F-Value | p-Value | ηp2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable: Post-digit span | ||||||
Model | 28.92 | 2 | 14.46 | 23.77 | 0.00 *** | 0.41 |
Window view | 0.28 | 1 | 0.28 | 0.46 | 0.50 | 0.01 |
Pre-digit span | 27.66 | 1 | 27.66 | 45.48 | 0.00 *** | 0.40 |
Residual | 41.96 | 69 | 0.61 | |||
Total | 70.88 | 71 | 1.00 | |||
Dependent variable: Post-Corsi block | ||||||
Model | 40.97 | 2 | 20.49 | 13.03 | 0.00 *** | 0.27 |
Window view | 0.82 | 1 | 0.82 | 0.52 | 0.47 | 0.01 |
Pre-Corsi block | 37.57 | 1 | 37.57 | 23.89 | 0.00 *** | 0.26 |
Residual | 108.51 | 69 | 1.57 | |||
Total | 149.50 | 71 | 2.11 | |||
Dependent variable: Post-DCCS | ||||||
Model | 245.47 | 2 | 122.73 | 11.22 | 0.00 *** | 0.25 |
Window view | 2.35 | 1 | 2.35 | 0.21 | 0.64 | 0.00 |
Pre-DCCS | 241.85 | 1 | 241.85 | 22.12 | 0.00 *** | 0.24 |
Residual | 754.48 | 69 | 10.93 | |||
Total | 999.94 | 71 | 14.08 | |||
Dependent variable: Post-cortisol | ||||||
Model | 284.73 | 2 | 142.36 | 43.09 | 0.00 *** | 0.66 |
Window view | 1.04 | 1 | 1.04 | 0.32 | 0.58 | 0.08 |
Pre-cortisol | 283.52 | 1 | 283.52 | 85.81 | 0.00 *** | 0.66 |
Residual | 227.98 | 69 | 3.30 | |||
Total | 512.71 | 71 | 7.22 |
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Cha, K. The Influence of Classroom Size and Window View on Young Children’s Executive Functions and Physiological Responses, Based on VR Technology. Behav. Sci. 2023, 13, 936. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13110936
Cha K. The Influence of Classroom Size and Window View on Young Children’s Executive Functions and Physiological Responses, Based on VR Technology. Behavioral Sciences. 2023; 13(11):936. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13110936
Chicago/Turabian StyleCha, Kijoo. 2023. "The Influence of Classroom Size and Window View on Young Children’s Executive Functions and Physiological Responses, Based on VR Technology" Behavioral Sciences 13, no. 11: 936. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13110936