COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Emerging Variants: Evidence from Six Countries
Abstract
:1. Background
2. Methodology
2.1. Questionnaire
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Respondent Characteristics
3.2. Scores
3.3. Relationship between Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice
3.4. Knowledge
3.5. Attitude
3.6. Practice
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Independent Variable | Respondents with Score > 23.5 | Univariate Logistic Regression | Multiple Logistic Regression | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | OR | p-Value | 95% CI | AOR | p-Value | 95% CI | ||||
Sex | |||||||||||
Male ® | 206 | 51.76 | |||||||||
Female | 208 | 54.31 | 1.11 | 0.48 | 0.84 | 1.47 | 1.28 | 0.14 | 0.92 | 1.77 | |
Age groups | |||||||||||
15–24 ® | 104 | 44.07 | |||||||||
25–34 | 177 | 56.55 | 1.65 * | 0.00 | 1.18 | 2.32 | 1.10 | 0.72 | 0.66 | 1.84 | |
35–44 | 64 | 46.38 | 1.10 | 0.67 | 0.72 | 1.67 | 0.92 | 0.80 | 0.49 | 1.75 | |
45–54 | 45 | 83.33 | 6.35 * | 0.00 | 2.97 | 13.58 | 5.81 * | 0.00 | 2.30 | 14.69 | |
55–64 | 17 | 56.67 | 1.66 | 0.20 | 0.77 | 3.57 | 2.43 | 0.12 | 0.80 | 7.38 | |
65–74 | 7 | 70.00 | 2.96 | 0.12 | 0.75 | 11.73 | 7.47 | 0.07 | 0.86 | 64.82 | |
Nationality | |||||||||||
Bangladeshi ® | 173 | 62.45 | |||||||||
American | 25 | 75.76 | 1.88 | 0.14 | 0.82 | 4.32 | |||||
Colombian | 101 | 42.62 | 0.45 * | 0.00 | 0.31 | 0.64 | |||||
Indian | 66 | 65.35 | 1.13 | 0.61 | 0.70 | 1.83 | |||||
Malaysian | 18 | 30.51 | 0.26 * | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.48 | |||||
Zimbabwean | 13 | 26.00 | 0.21 * | 0.00 | 0.11 | 0.42 | |||||
Other | 18 | 75.00 | 1.80 | 0.23 | 0.69 | 4.69 | |||||
Country | |||||||||||
Bangladesh ® | 164 | 61.19 | |||||||||
Colombia | 102 | 43.40 | 0.49 * | 0.00 | 0.34 | 0.69 | 0.56 * | 0.02 | 0.34 | 0.92 | |
India | 61 | 63.54 | 1.11 | 0.69 | 0.68 | 1.79 | 1.37 | 0.29 | 0.77 | 2.44 | |
Malaysia | 18 | 31.03 | 0.29 * | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.52 | 0.23 * | 0.00 | 0.12 | 0.47 | |
USA | 42 | 84.00 | 3.33 * | 0.00 | 1.50 | 7.37 | 3.16 * | 0.01 | 1.35 | 7.38 | |
Zimbabwe | 14 | 26.42 | 0.23 * | 0.00 | 0.12 | 0.44 | 0.60 | 0.27 | 0.25 | 1.47 | |
Other | 13 | 61.90 | 1.03 | 0.95 | 0.41 | 2.57 | 1.33 | 0.59 | 0.48 | 3.71 | |
Education | |||||||||||
College graduate ® | 141 | 52.03 | |||||||||
Grade school | 6 | 37.50 | 0.55 | 0.26 | 0.20 | 1.56 | 0.39 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 1.29 | |
Junior high or middle school | 7 | 41.18 | 0.65 | 0.39 | 0.24 | 1.75 | 0.77 | 0.66 | 0.25 | 2.38 | |
Some high school | 3 | 10.34 | 0.11 * | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.36 | 0.13* | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.59 | |
High school graduate | 52 | 52.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.63 | 1.58 | 1.25 | 0.47 | 0.68 | 2.28 | |
Trade or technical school | 19 | 25.33 | 0.31 * | 0.00 | 0.18 | 0.55 | 0.41 * | 0.01 | 0.21 | 0.80 | |
Some college | 12 | 46.15 | 0.79 | 0.57 | 0.35 | 1.77 | 0.46 | 0.10 | 0.18 | 1.16 | |
Post college (graduate school) | 174 | 70.45 | 2.20 * | 0.00 | 1.53 | 3.16 | 1.83 * | 0.00 | 1.23 | 2.74 | |
Employment | |||||||||||
Employed full time ® | 221 | 60.22 | |||||||||
Employed part time | 19 | 55.88 | 0.84 | 0.62 | 0.41 | 1.70 | 0.91 | 0.81 | 0.41 | 2.01 | |
Retired | 7 | 43.75 | 0.47 * | 0.03 | 0.24 | 0.95 | 0.45 * | 0.04 | 0.21 | 0.96 | |
Self-employed | 22 | 44.90 | 0.58 * | 0.00 | 0.42 | 0.79 | 1.11 | 0.71 | 0.65 | 1.89 | |
Student | 126 | 46.67 | 0.51 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 1.41 | 0.30 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 1.64 | |
Unemployed | 15 | 41.67 | 0.54 * | 0.04 | 0.30 | 0.98 | 0.53 | 0.07 | 0.26 | 1.05 | |
Other | 4 | 44.44 | 0.53 | 0.35 | 0.14 | 2.00 | 0.22 * | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.96 |
Independent Variable | Respondents with a Score >27.5 | Univariate Logistic Regression | Multiple Logistic Regression | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | OR | p-Value | 95% CI | AOR | p-Value | 95% CI | ||||
Sex | |||||||||||
Male ® | 229 | 57.54 | |||||||||
Female | 203 | 53.00 | 0.83 | 0.20 | 0.63 | 1.10 | 0.81 | 0.20 | 0.60 | 1.11 | |
Age groups | |||||||||||
15–24 ® | 147 | 62.29 | |||||||||
25–34 | 159 | 50.80 | 0.63 * | 0.01 | 0.44 | 0.88 | 0.78 | 0.32 | 0.47 | 1.28 | |
35–44 | 79 | 57.25 | 0.81 | 0.34 | 0.53 | 1.24 | 0.98 | 0.94 | 0.53 | 1.81 | |
45–54 | 28 | 51.85 | 0.65 | 0.16 | 0.36 | 1.18 | 0.90 | 0.78 | 0.42 | 1.92 | |
55–64 | 12 | 40.00 | 0.40 * | 0.02 | 0.19 | 0.88 | 0.47 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 1.33 | |
65–74 | 7 | 70.00 | 1.41 | 0.62 | 0.36 | 5.60 | 1.89 | 0.49 | 0.31 | 11.40 | |
Nationality | |||||||||||
Bangladeshi ® | 154 | 55.60 | |||||||||
American | 9 | 27.27 | 0.30 * | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.67 | |||||
Colombian | 129 | 54.43 | 0.95 | 0.79 | 0.67 | 1.35 | |||||
Indian | 53 | 52.48 | 0.88 | 0.59 | 0.56 | 1.39 | |||||
Malaysian | 35 | 59.32 | 1.16 | 0.60 | 0.66 | 2.06 | |||||
Zimbabwean | 43 | 86.00 | 4.91 * | 0.00 | 2.13 | 11.29 | |||||
Other | 9 | 37.50 | 0.48 | 0.09 | 0.20 | 1.13 | |||||
Country | |||||||||||
Bangladesh ® | 149 | 55.60 | |||||||||
Colombia | 129 | 54.89 | 0.97 | 0.87 | 0.68 | 1.38 | 0.72 | 0.18 | 0.44 | 1.17 | |
India | 52 | 54.17 | 0.94 | 0.81 | 0.59 | 1.51 | 0.81 | 0.46 | 0.47 | 1.41 | |
Malaysia | 34 | 58.62 | 1.13 | 0.67 | 0.64 | 2.01 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 0.52 | 1.84 | |
USA | 16 | 32.00 | 0.38 * | 0.00 | 0.20 | 0.71 | 0.36* | 0.00 | 0.18 | 0.72 | |
Zimbabwe | 45 | 84.91 | 4.49 * | 0.00 | 2.04 | 9.90 | 1.80 | 0.25 | 0.67 | 4.88 | |
Other | 7 | 33.33 | 0.40 | 0.06 | 0.16 | 1.02 | 0.37 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 1.02 | |
Education | |||||||||||
College graduate ® | 155 | 57.20 | |||||||||
Grade school | 9 | 56.25 | 0.96 | 0.94 | 0.35 | 2.66 | 0.85 | 0.77 | 0.29 | 2.49 | |
Junior high or middle school | 14 | 82.35 | 3.49 * | 0.05 | 0.98 | 12.44 | 3.52 | 0.07 | 0.91 | 13.56 | |
Some high school | 27 | 93.10 | 10.10 * | 0.00 | 2.35 | 43.34 | 5.37 | 0.06 | 0.93 | 31.15 | |
High school graduate | 51 | 51.00 | 0.78 | 0.29 | 0.49 | 1.23 | 0.84 | 0.56 | 0.47 | 1.51 | |
Trade or technical school | 50 | 66.67 | 1.50 | 0.14 | 0.87 | 2.56 | 1.85 | 0.06 | 0.99 | 3.46 | |
Some college | 18 | 69.23 | 1.68 | 0.24 | 0.71 | 4.01 | 1.89 | 0.18 | 0.75 | 4.75 | |
Post college (graduate school) | 108 | 43.72 | 0.58 * | 0.00 | 0.41 | 0.82 | 0.56 * | 0.00 | 0.39 | 0.82 | |
Employment | |||||||||||
Employed full time ® | 192 | 52.32 | |||||||||
Employed part time | 20 | 58.82 | 1.30 | 0.47 | 0.64 | 2.66 | 1.24 | 0.58 | 0.58 | 2.66 | |
Retired | 10 | 62.50 | 1.14 | 0.71 | 0.57 | 2.27 | 1.05 | 0.90 | 0.50 | 2.20 | |
Self-employed | 31 | 63.27 | 1.23 | 0.20 | 0.90 | 1.69 | 0.78 | 0.34 | 0.47 | 1.30 | |
Student | 155 | 57.41 | 1.52 | 0.43 | 0.54 | 4.27 | 1.39 | 0.65 | 0.33 | 5.92 | |
Unemployed | 20 | 55.56 | 1.57 | 0.15 | 0.85 | 2.91 | 1.62 | 0.15 | 0.84 | 3.15 | |
Other | 4 | 44.44 | 0.73 | 0.64 | 0.19 | 2.76 | 0.79 | 0.75 | 0.18 | 3.39 |
Independent Variable | Respondents with a Score > 5.5 | Univariate Logistic Regression | Multiple Logistic Regression | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | OR | p-Value | 95% CI | AOR | p-Value | 95% CI | ||||
Sex | |||||||||||
Male ® | 320 | 80.40 | |||||||||
Female | 300 | 78.33 | 0.88 | 0.47 | 0.62 | 1.25 | 1.24 | 0.29 | 0.83 | 1.85 | |
Age groups | |||||||||||
15–24 ® | 171 | 72.46 | |||||||||
25–34 | 256 | 81.79 | 1.71 * | 0.01 | 1.14 | 2.56 | 1.23 | 0.50 | 0.67 | 2.25 | |
35–44 | 114 | 82.61 | 1.81 * | 0.03 | 1.07 | 3.05 | 1.86 | 0.11 | 0.87 | 3.97 | |
45–54 | 45 | 83.33 | 1.90 | 0.10 | 0.88 | 4.11 | 1.84 | 0.22 | 0.70 | 4.89 | |
55–64 | 25 | 83.33 | 1.90 | 0.21 | 0.70 | 5.18 | 3.79 | 0.07 | 0.90 | 15.92 | |
65–74 | 9 | 90.00 | 3.42 | 0.25 | 0.42 | 27.54 | 34.12 * | 0.02 | 1.80 | 647.89 | |
Nationality | |||||||||||
Bangladeshi ® | 250 | 90.25 | |||||||||
American | 18 | 54.55 | 0.13 * | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.29 | |||||
Colombian | 139 | 58.65 | 0.15 * | 0.00 | 0.10 | 0.25 | |||||
Indian | 97 | 96.04 | 2.62 | 0.08 | 0.89 | 7.68 | |||||
Malaysian | 53 | 89.83 | 0.95 | 0.92 | 0.38 | 2.43 | |||||
Zimbabwean | 42 | 84.00 | 0.57 | 0.19 | 0.24 | 1.33 | |||||
Other | 21 | 87.50 | 0.76 | 0.67 | 0.21 | 2.70 | |||||
Country | |||||||||||
Bangladesh ® | 242 | 90.30 | |||||||||
Colombia | 137 | 58.30 | 0.15 * | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.24 | 0.15 * | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.28 | |
India | 92 | 95.83 | 2.47 | 0.10 | 0.84 | 7.27 | 3.68 * | 0.03 | 1.15 | 11.74 | |
Malaysia | 52 | 89.66 | 0.93 | 0.88 | 0.36 | 2.38 | 0.92 | 0.87 | 0.33 | 2.52 | |
USA | 34 | 68.00 | 0.23 * | 0.00 | 0.11 | 0.47 | 0.19 * | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.40 | |
Zimbabwe | 44 | 83.02 | 0.53 | 0.13 | 0.23 | 1.20 | 0.55 | 0.32 | 0.17 | 1.80 | |
Other | 19 | 90.48 | 1.02 | 0.98 | 0.22 | 4.63 | 1.01 | 0.99 | 0.21 | 4.84 | |
Education | |||||||||||
College graduate ® | 214 | 78.97 | |||||||||
Grade school | 15 | 93.75 | 4.00 | 0.18 | 0.52 | 30.89 | 3.39 | 0.26 | 0.40 | 28.39 | |
Junior high or middle school | 12 | 70.59 | 0.64 | 0.42 | 0.22 | 1.89 | 1.48 | 0.54 | 0.42 | 5.27 | |
Some high school | 24 | 82.76 | 1.28 | 0.63 | 0.47 | 3.50 | 1.78 | 0.47 | 0.38 | 8.38 | |
High school graduate | 70 | 70.00 | 0.62 | 0.07 | 0.37 | 1.04 | 2.16 * | 0.03 | 1.07 | 4.38 | |
Trade or technical school | 42 | 56.00 | 0.34 * | 0.00 | 0.20 | 0.58 | 1.15 | 0.68 | 0.59 | 2.25 | |
Some college | 22 | 84.62 | 1.46 | 0.50 | 0.49 | 4.42 | 0.91 | 0.89 | 0.26 | 3.24 | |
Post college (graduate school) | 221 | 89.47 | 2.26 * | 0.00 | 1.37 | 3.73 | 1.97 * | 0.02 | 1.11 | 3.47 | |
Employment | |||||||||||
Employed full time ® | 313 | 85.29 | |||||||||
Employed part time | 26 | 76.47 | 0.56 | 0.18 | 0.24 | 1.30 | 0.89 | 0.81 | 0.34 | 2.31 | |
Retired | 12 | 75.00 | 0.71 | 0.45 | 0.30 | 1.71 | 0.79 | 0.65 | 0.29 | 2.16 | |
Self-employed | 40 | 81.63 | 0.43 * | 0.00 | 0.29 | 0.64 | 0.88 | 0.69 | 0.47 | 1.63 | |
Student | 193 | 71.48 | 0.52 | 0.27 | 0.16 | 1.66 | 0.13 * | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.94 | |
Unemployed | 29 | 80.56 | 0.77 | 0.50 | 0.35 | 1.67 | 1.13 | 0.78 | 0.48 | 2.68 | |
Other | 7 | 77.78 | 0.60 | 0.54 | 0.12 | 2.98 | 0.32 | 0.20 | 0.06 | 1.82 |
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Mangla, S.; Zohra Makkia, F.T.; Pathak, A.K.; Robinson, R.; Sultana, N.; Koonisetty, K.S.; Karamehic-Muratovic, A.; Nguyen, U.-S.D.T.; Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Sanchez-Duque, J.A.; et al. COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Emerging Variants: Evidence from Six Countries. Behav. Sci. 2021, 11, 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11110148
Mangla S, Zohra Makkia FT, Pathak AK, Robinson R, Sultana N, Koonisetty KS, Karamehic-Muratovic A, Nguyen U-SDT, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Sanchez-Duque JA, et al. COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Emerging Variants: Evidence from Six Countries. Behavioral Sciences. 2021; 11(11):148. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11110148
Chicago/Turabian StyleMangla, Sherry, Fatima Tuz Zohra Makkia, Ashok Kumar Pathak, Renee Robinson, Nargis Sultana, Kranthi Swaroop Koonisetty, Ajlina Karamehic-Muratovic, Uyen-Sa D.T. Nguyen, Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales, Jorge A. Sanchez-Duque, and et al. 2021. "COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Emerging Variants: Evidence from Six Countries" Behavioral Sciences 11, no. 11: 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11110148
APA StyleMangla, S., Zohra Makkia, F. T., Pathak, A. K., Robinson, R., Sultana, N., Koonisetty, K. S., Karamehic-Muratovic, A., Nguyen, U.-S. D. T., Rodriguez-Morales, A. J., Sanchez-Duque, J. A., Zamba, P. T., Aghamohammadi, N., CS, F., & Haque, U. (2021). COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Emerging Variants: Evidence from Six Countries. Behavioral Sciences, 11(11), 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs11110148