Mechanisms of Primary and Secondary Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Host Factors
3. Tumor Factors
4. Mechanisms of Primary Resistance
5. Mechanisms of Secondary Resistance
6. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Host Factors | Tumor Factors |
---|---|
Gut microbiota | Tumor biology (aneuploidy, histology, etc.) |
Performance status | Tumor microenvironment (PD-L1 expression, neoantigen load, immunosuppressive cytokines, tumor-associated microphages (TAMs), tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes (TILs), etc.) |
Immune status (inflammatory biomarkers, regulatory T-cells (Tregs), etc.) | |
Gene mutations (γ-interferon pathway, JAK1, JAK2, PTEN, B2M, etc.) | |
Comorbidities | |
Mutation burden (POLE mutation, DNA mismatched repair protein deficiency, etc.) | |
Use of antibiotics | |
Use of steroids |
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Seto, T.; Sam, D.; Pan, M. Mechanisms of Primary and Secondary Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer. Med. Sci. 2019, 7, 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci7020014
Seto T, Sam D, Pan M. Mechanisms of Primary and Secondary Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer. Medical Sciences. 2019; 7(2):14. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci7020014
Chicago/Turabian StyleSeto, Tiffany, Danny Sam, and Minggui Pan. 2019. "Mechanisms of Primary and Secondary Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer" Medical Sciences 7, no. 2: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci7020014
APA StyleSeto, T., Sam, D., & Pan, M. (2019). Mechanisms of Primary and Secondary Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in Cancer. Medical Sciences, 7(2), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci7020014