Rock Glacier Kinematics in the Kaunertal, Ötztal Alps, Austria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Rock Glacier Inventory
3.2. Determining Horizontal Surface Movement Using Least Squares Matching
3.3. Statistical Analysis of Kinematics-Morphometry Relations
Group | Parameter | Abbreviation | Unit | Source | Association | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Geometry | Length 1 * † | LRG | m | RGI | Age | [62] |
Width 1 * † | WRG | m | RGI | Thickening/thinning | [63] | |
Surface Area 2 * | ARG | km2 | DEM RGI | Yield stresses | ||
Height * † | HRG | m | DEM | |||
Riser height 1 * † | HF | m | DEM | Thickness | [64,65] | |
Morphology | Surface slope * † | ΦRG | ° | DEM | Shear stress PISR Snow distribution | [64] |
Profile curvature * † Plan curvature * † | − | Compression/extension Subsidence Runoff characteristics | [3,22,66] | |||
Surface roughness 3 | − | Grain size distribution | [65,67] | |||
Terrain | Max. elevation Min. elevation * † | Emin Emax | m a.s.l. | DEM | MAAT Permafrost distribution Potential energy | [68,69,70] |
N-exposedness 4 E-exposedness 4 * | − | Radiation Age Snow distribution | [71,72] | |||
Mean PISR * † | kWh m−2 yr-1 | MAGST | [69,70,73] | |||
Feeder basin | Height * | HFB | m | DEM 5 | Liquid water supply Snow & avalanche input | [62] |
Area 2 * | AFB | km2 | ||||
Slope * | ΦFB | ° | Runoff characteristics Liquid water supply | |||
Geometric slope * | ΦGSL | ° | DEM | |||
Headwall | Height | HHW | m | DEM 5 | Debris supply | [62,74,75,76,77] |
Area 2 | AHW | km2 | ||||
Slope * † | ΦHW | ° |
3.4. Modeling Rock Glacier Activity
4. Results
4.1. Horizontal Surface Velocities and Spatial Variability
4.2. Rock Glacier Characteristics and Distributional Patterns
4.3. Statistical Analysis of Potential Controls on Rock Glacier Kinematics
4.3.1. Controls on Surface Velocities
4.3.2. Controls on Rock Glacier Activity
4.4. Modeling Rock Glacier Activity
5. Discussions
5.1. Rock Glacier Activity, Velocity And Degradation
5.2. What Controls Rock Glacier Kinematics in the Kaunertal?
5.2.1. Towards Morphometrically Explaining Rock Glacier Velocities
5.2.2. Predicting Rock Glacier Activity in the Kaunertal
5.3. A Tentative Assessment of the Hydrological Importance of Permafrost in an Alpine Catchment
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Period | Acquisition | Ground Resolution | Coverage of Inventory | |
---|---|---|---|---|
2001–2003 | 2001-09-03 2003-07-19 2003-09-05 | 0.2 m * | 39,994 m2 1,795,254 m2 5,884,029 m2 | 0.5% 23.3% 76.2% |
2005–2009 | 2005-09-06 2007-09-24 2009-09-08 2009-09-09 | 0.2 m * | 39,994 m2 1,996,841 m2 1,338,780 m2 4,343,662 m2 | 0.5% 25.9% 17.3% 56.3% |
2010 | 2010-07-31 2010-09-20 | 0.2 m * | 5,135,343 m2 2,583,934 m2 | 66.5% 33.5% |
2015 | 2015-08-03 2015-08-26 2015-08-27 2015-08-28 | 0.2 m * | 2,495,913 m2 1,622,088 m2 3,547,282 m2 53,994 m2 | 32.3% 21.0% 46.0% 0.7% |
2018 | 2018-09-28 | 0.05 m † | 126,002 m2 | 1.6% |
Velocity Percentiles | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parameters | 25th | 50th | 75th | 95th | Maximum |
RG east exposedness | 0.38 (−)** | 0.18 (−) | |||
RG slope | 0.19 (₊) | 0.16 (₊) | 0.21 (₊) | 0.43 (₊) | 0.26 (₊)* |
RG riser height | 0.14 (₊) | 0.21 (₊) | 0.25 (₊)* | ||
RG height | 0.19 (₊) | ||||
RG roughness | 0.22 (₊)* | 0.19 (₊) | 0.19 (₊) | 0.30 (₊)* | 0.20 (₊) |
FB area | 0.16 (₊) | ||||
FB height | 0.14 (₊) | ||||
FB slope | 0.25 (₊)* | 0.16 (₊) | 0.14 (₊) | 0.24 (₊)* | 0.28 (₊)** |
Geometric slope | 0.31 (₊)* | 0.27 (₊)* | 0.32 (₊)* | 0.30 (₊)* | 0.35 (₊)** |
HW area | 0.15 (₊) | ||||
HW slope | 0.35 (₊)** | 0.40 (₊)** | 0.28 (₊)* |
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Groh, T.; Blöthe, J.H. Rock Glacier Kinematics in the Kaunertal, Ötztal Alps, Austria. Geosciences 2019, 9, 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9090373
Groh T, Blöthe JH. Rock Glacier Kinematics in the Kaunertal, Ötztal Alps, Austria. Geosciences. 2019; 9(9):373. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9090373
Chicago/Turabian StyleGroh, Till, and Jan Henrik Blöthe. 2019. "Rock Glacier Kinematics in the Kaunertal, Ötztal Alps, Austria" Geosciences 9, no. 9: 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9090373