Next Article in Journal
The 2017 Rigopiano Avalanche—Dynamics Inferred from Field Observations
Previous Article in Journal
Direct Inversion Method of Fault Slip Analysis to Determine the Orientation of Principal Stresses and Relative Chronology for Tectonic Events in Southwestern White Mountain Region of New Hampshire, USA
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Geosciences
Volume 10
Issue 11
10.3390/geosciences10110465
geosciences-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Black Carbon as a Source of Trace Elements and Nutrients in Ice Sheet of King George Island, Antarctica

by
Vyacheslav Polyakov
1,*,
Evgeny Abakumov
1 and
Bulat Mavlyudov
2
1
Department of Applied Ecology, Faculty of Biology, St. Petersburg State University, 16th Liniya V.O., 29, St. Petersburg 199178, Russia
2
Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119017, Russia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Geosciences 2020, 10(11), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110465
Submission received: 16 October 2020 / Revised: 11 November 2020 / Accepted: 14 November 2020 / Published: 18 November 2020
(This article belongs to the Section Biogeosciences)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Enormous deglaciation in the polar and mountainous regions of the Earth is associated not only with large-scale climatic changes but also with the global transfer of black carbon (BC) microparticles, which accumulate on the surface of glaciers and lead to changes in albedo and the rate of degradation of ice. BC is the product of an incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions, and wildfires. The accumulation of organogenic microparticles leads to the formation of cryoconites, which are dust made of a combination of small rock particles and the result of anthropogenic activities (fossil fuel combustion) that play a special role in deglaciation. Here, we describe the content of trace metals and nutrients in accumulation of the BC from glaciers of Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, Western Antarctica. The analysis of trace metals concentrations showed that most of the studied elements (Cr, Pb, Zn, Ni) have a volcanic origin; at the same time, Cd and Cu have been accumulated as a result of anthropogenic activity. The content of nutrients in BC are most similar with Technosols, which forms near the scientific station at King George Island. The particles of BC can be translocated into organisms, which could pose a significant risk for living organisms and humans.

1. Introduction

The Polar Regions affect the climatic balance of the entire globe. An increase in temperature, greenhouse gas emissions, and amount of black carbon (BC) in the atmosphere leads to a reduction in the ice cover of our planet [1,2,3]. To address this problem, special international groups have been organized to monitor emissions and environmental pollution. The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) established an Expert Group on Short-Lived Climate Forcers (SLCFs) in 2009 with the goal of reviewing the state of science surrounding short-lived climate forcers in the Arctic and recommending scientific tasks to be conducted or promoted by AMAP to increase relevant knowledge and its application to policy-making [4,5]. Arctic warming is a manifestation of global warming; reducing global-average warming will reduce Arctic warming and slow the rate of melting of snow and ice [6,7]. Reduction in the emission of carbon dioxide is the backbone of any meaningful effort to mitigate climate forcing [8,9,10], but it cannot be achieved quickly [5,11]. Therefore, shortening the thawing season is an important intermediate goal, and research on short-lived agents of climate change is necessary to achieve this [12,13]. Of special importance are those agents that impose a surface forcing that is capable of triggering regional-scale climate feedbacks pertaining to the melting of sea ice and snow [5,14].
BC is a short-lived climatic factor—a term referring to a climate-forcing substance that is present in the atmosphere over small time scales (from several days to several years) [5,11]. It is the second-largest artificial contributor to global warming and accelerating glacier melting after carbon dioxide [15]. BC absorbs several hundred times more heat than carbon dioxide [16]. Therefore, globally, reducing emissions of BC is one of the main tasks in solving the problem of climate change [17]. BC is formed from an incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass [18,19], mainly in the form of emissions from diesel engines, industrial production processes, and oil and gas production, as well as the combustion of wood and coal, incineration of agricultural waste, and wildfires. The main sources of BC in the northern polar regions (Greenland, Russia, Canada and Svalbard) are wildfires, especially from Asian regions [20]. The second largest source of BC is the combustion of fossil fuels in Eurasia. In addition to these two sources is industrial pollution, the effects of which have been noted in the North Pole region [21]. The main period of deposition on terrestrial surfaces of BC is late autumn and winter [20].
The Antarctic ice sheet is an integral part of the globe and plays an important role for humanity [22]. The Antarctic ice sheet is an important indicator of climate change and a driver of sea level rise. As their depletion continues to accelerate, Antarctic ice streams contribute about 10% of the observed global sea level rise [23,24]. According to various estimates, the Antarctic ice contains 80% to 90% of the fresh water on the Earth’s surface [25,26]. The current state of the Antarctic ice sheet is unclear and controversial. Volcanism is concentrated in western Antarctica and is associated with the Antarctic Peninsula. The volcanoes form the Antarctic Volcanic Belt, which can be traced from Ross Island to the Antarctic Peninsula along the coast of Mary Byrd Land and Edsworth Land. Currently, there are more than 800 active volcanoes on Earth, most of which are located in the northern hemisphere. Volcanic eruptions are considered one of the main sources of BC particle emissions that are accelerating the melting of glaciers [27]. After an eruption, the heavier ash particles quickly settle on the ground, while the lighter ones are suspended in the atmosphere and can be carried over considerable distances [28]. Falling out on territories covered with snow and ice, including Antarctica, volcanic ash increases the absorption of solar radiation, which contributes to the intense melting of snow [29,30]. The primary sources of BC in the southern hemisphere are biomass combustion in Australia, South America, and Africa. The anthropogenic influence of the accumulation of BC in Antarctica has been noted near Palmer Station (USA). BC concentrations in cryoconites reduced with the distance to Palmer station from 16.5 to 1.2 mg BC and were higher than in other BC studies on snow in natural ecosystems, such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys. That the content of BC increased near the Antarctic station has also been noted in other parts of Antarctica. It has been noted that in addition to the contribution of BC from scientific bases, the combustion of biomass and fossil fuels as well as wildfires occurring in the southern hemisphere could also affect the content of BC on the surface of glaciers and snow in Antarctica [31].
The Antarctic ecosystem is particularly sensitive to anthropogenic modifications [32]. Ice-free land occupies <2% of the continent, but most of the human and terrestrial biological activities are concentrated in these areas [33]. Heavy metals naturally occur in the Earth crust [34,35,36], and human activities have introduced high loads of these elements into the surficial environment. BC that accumulates in cryoconites can provide a temporally integrated indication of environmental condition and act as a reservoir for metals [21,37,38,39]. The accumulation of radionuclides in the BC of cryoconites is also noted. The main source of these radionuclides is the testing of nuclear weapons in the Pacific Ocean. Due to its organic content, cryoconite effectively binds and accumulates impurities contained in melt water, which have an affinity for organic substances, including trace elements, nutrients, and radionuclides [21,40].
The Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands have the highest concentration of research stations in Antarctica. In addition, the islands located near the peninsula are those most often visited by tourist boats. The study of the BC that accumulates on the glaciers of Antarctica is poorly investigated. The study of local sources of pollution is an important contribution to monitoring the vulnerable environment of Antarctica. Thus, the aim of this research was to evaluate the content of trace elements and key nutrients in cryoconites on the Fildes Peninsula on King George Island. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were set: (1) to evaluate the gravimetrical concentrations of key trace elements and (2) to identify key nutrients concentration in the cryoconites sampled on the surface Collins Ice Cap.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

King George Island is the largest of the South Shetland Archipelago, with an area of about 1338 km2. Nearly the entire island is covered with ice. The largest ice-free area is the Fildes Peninsula in the south-west part of the island (Figure 1).
The maximum height of the ice caps reaches 700 m. The peninsula consists of volcanic rocks, mainly andesites, basalts, and various tuffs. The climate of Fildes Peninsula is marine. The number of sunshine days is about 100. The average annual temperature is −2.8 °C. The annual precipitation is 729 mm. A characteristic feature of West Antarctica is precipitation in the liquid form of water [33,41]. Observations in Admiralty Bay indicate the retreat of the glacier and the reduction of the ice sheet over the past decades. A total of 10 cryoconites samples were taken from the western part of Collins Ice Cap of King George Island, Antarctica (Figure 2).

2.2. Methology

Samples were taken during the glaciological surveys in February 2020 from the ice and delivered to the field laboratory. There are several ways to sample BC, depending on the source from which they are taken (snow, ice, or water). We use a small drill to extract BC from ice; it is important to use only mechanical or electrical devices in order to eliminate an additional source of exhaust gases that could affect study results. After collection, samples are defrosted, the water is filtered, and the filter residue is analyzed. Snow and water analysis are similar to ice analysis. To extract BC from snow, it is necessary to melt the snow and separate the particles of BC from the resulting water by filter. For water samples, it would be filtered to isolate the particles of BC. A standard BC isolation method is described by Hegg et al. [15,42]. Dried samples were investigated at the Department of Applied Ecology of St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg. The coordinates of studied cryoconites are presented in Table 1. The origin of studied cryoconites has been investigated during the glaciological survey.

2.3. Chemical Analyses

The contents of carbon, nitrogen, heavy metals, and nutrients were determined. Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content were determined using an element analyzer (EA3028-HT EuroVector, Pravia PV, Italy). The content of heavy metals was determined following to the standard ISO 11047-1998 “Soil Quality-Determination of Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Manganese (Mg), Nickel (Ni) and Zinc (Zn) in Aqua Regia Extracts of Soil - Flame and Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometric” method at Atomic absorption spectrophotometer Kvant 2M (Moscow, Russia) [43]. The content of nitrate and ammonium nitrogen (N-NH4 and N-NO3) took place following the method outlined in [44], using potassium chloride solution. The content of mobile potassium (K2O) and phosphorus (P2O5) was determined by the Kirsanov method [45]. The method is based on the extraction of mobile compounds of phosphorus and potassium from the soil with a solution of 0.2 M HCl.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Statistical data processing and Spearmen’s correlation analysis were performed in the Paleontological Statistics (PAST) program software. In our study, we used two statistical analyses to reveal the relationship between the studied components: principal component analysis (PCA) analysis and Spearman’s rank correlation. PCA analysis made it possible to conduct a search procedure for variables (components) that explain the variance of multivariate data. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is a quantitative assessment of the statistical study of the relationship between phenomena, and it is used in nonparametric methods.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. The Content of Trace Metals in Studied Cryoconites

The investigated BC samples were analyzed according to the ISO standard [43]. The resulting trace metals content is presented in Table 2.
The data obtained indicate the accumulation of trace elements in cryoconites in the Collins Ice Cap. Comparison of the obtained data with other sources of trace elements in Antarctica is presented in Table 3. Through comparison of the obtained concentrations of trace elements with those of soils, bay sediments, and volcanic rocks, it can be concluded that the lowest concentrations are observed in cryoconites [46]. This is presumably associated with different mechanisms of accumulation of trace elements. The origin of cryoconites is associated with atmospheric precipitation, as well as anthropogenic activity in the area. Of the studied elements, Cd was the closest in concentration to the soils and sediments of Fildes Bay [47]. It accumulates considerably in soils forming on Fildes Peninsula. Cryoconites from King George Island have a volcanic origin. From the comparison of obtained concentrations with those of volcanic rocks, we note a decrease in the concentration of Cu and Zn. At the same time, there is an accumulation of Cd and Cr, which apparently have an anthropogenic origin. The largest amount of Cd is present in the areas where Antarctic scientific stations are based [38,48,49].
Principal component analysis (PCA) analysis (Figure 3) indicates an accumulation of Zn and Cu in cryoconites at Collins Ice Cap. These elements accumulate mainly from the volcanic rocks of the island.
To identify a statistically significant relationship, Spearmen correlation analysis was performed (Table 4). From the obtained correlation, connection was revealed for Zn and Cu (r = 0.99) as well as Ni and Pb (r = 0.98). These four elements accumulate mainly during the erosion of volcanic rocks on the island and are associated with atmospheric deposition on glaciers [46].
In Antarctica, the areas most affected by anthropogenic activities are those close to oil reservoirs, power generators, or landfills, or those directly affected by fires [38,48,50]. The source of Cd and Cu is mostly fuel spills and paintwork in the Antarctic station areas. In comparison with the northern hemisphere, it should be noted that the mountain systems of Tibet are subject to a greater degree of anthropogenic pollution and accumulation of trace elements in cryoconites [51]. As already noted, during the transfer of trace metals, their concentration decreases from the source to the place of deposition. The main periods of deposition of BC, as in the Arctic sector, are periods of high air humidity, Arctic haze, and the monsoon period, at which time there is an active deposition of BC along with precipitation [52]. Data from the Svalbard Archipelago reveal the anthropogenic origin of Cd and Pb, as well as their high concentration relative to natural elements, which was noted in our study of cryoconites from the Collins Ice Cap. Apparently, cryoconite granules have a peculiar ability to concentrate metals, and they play a special role in the cycle of airborne metal pollutants in the Arctic and Antarctic [21].
Most of the studies related to the pollution of soil and aquatic ecosystems in Antarctica [21,37,38] have shown that pollution is mainly concentrated around scientific stations. Environmental monitoring studies are extremely important for the conservation of the continent’s vulnerable plant and animal species. The formation of cryoconites and the accumulation of trace metals in their composition is an additional contribution to the pollution of the vulnerable ecosystem of Antarctica.

3.2. The Content of Key Nutrients from Studied Cryoconites

Table 5 shows the nutrient content of BC from the Collins Ice Cap. Accumulation occurs through atmospheric precipitation and rarely via transportation by birds, which do not use the cryoconites as nesting sites [41]. When compared to soils from King George Island, cryoconites were found to accumulate the lower concentration of nutrients. The nutrient content of cryoconites is most similar to that of Technic Cryosol, which is actively exposed to anthropogenic impact.
Spearmen correlation was performed to identify statistically significant relationships between nutrients (Table 6). A strong relation was found between N and N-NH4 (r = 0.96) and N-NH4 and K2O (r = 0.97). A negative correlation with P2O5 was noted, which indicates that with a decrease in the content of P2O5, the content of other nutrients increases. This may be related to the composition of the microbial community that forms in cryoconites.
The source of phosphorus and nitrogen compounds may be associated with avian activity, as birds are the main source of nutrients in Antarctica. Increasing nutrient content in cryoconites can lead to green vegetation, which absorbs less sunlight than black particles and reduces the rate of deglaciation. According to earlier studies of ornithogenic soils, the content of mobile forms of nutrients is much higher than in cryoconite holes, which is associated with the direct accumulation of nutrients and low indicators of microbiological activity in Antarctic soils. The background nutrient content in the soils of King George Island is higher than that of the cryoconite samples [41]. This distribution of nutrients is associated with the atmospheric accumulation in cryoconites of organomineral substances from the local soils. The nutrient content profile closest to that of cryoconite was found in the technogenic soils of the same region [41]. Based on this, it can be concluded that the organo-mineral substances accumulated in cryoconite are the least suitable for the development of plants and soil microbiota [53,54]. The low content of nutrients in cryoconites is due to the fact that birds prefer to nest in rocky outcrops and natural soils [41]. The accumulation of nutrients in cryoconites is an important factor in the functioning of local biomes. Cryoconites constitute a unique habitat in the cryosphere, where microbes have adapted to cold conditions. Research carried out in the Himalayas and Greenland confirms the fact that various microbes and fungi can live in cryoconites and form ecosystems within them [54]. Research carried out in Antarctica confirms the fact that bacteria that form on the continent (bacterial mats on land, sea ice, and melted ice from local ice sheets) are the source of bacterial communities in cryoconite holes [53]. Therefore, one of the sources of nitrogen compounds, in addition to birds, is the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by bacteria and the creation of a nutrient base inside cryoconites. Liu et al. [55] provided the information about the mechanism of accumulation of BC and PM1 in living organisms of marine ecosystems (using the example of sea anemones that feed on suspended solids in sea water) in the Taiwan region. The author consider that BC and PM1 particles are able to freely overcome biological barriers. The paper cited also provides the evidence that the BC found in sea anemone organisms was obtained by biomass combustion as well as by weathering ancient rocks. The work also confirms the theory that BC’s nutrients are absorbed by marine organisms and can be included in the food chain, and these compounds can be passed on to their offspring [55]. So, due to the fact that BC with nutrients is consumed by organisms, trace metals in BC could transit the biological barrier and integrate into food chains by the same mechanism of transfer.
Thus, cryoconites are one of the few environments in Antarctica considered inhabitable by multicellular animals. Each cryoconite is inherently unique and can support a discrete ecosystem. In addition, the ability of BC to overcome biological barriers and enter to food chains can present a serious threat to living organisms and human health in unique Antarctic environments.

4. Conclusions

BC plays a key role in climate change, particularly in deglaciation. Thus, it is necessary to comprehensively study it in the polar regions of the Earth. Together with BC, trace metals and nutrients are sequestered in cryoconites but can subsequently be released to the waters and soils of polar systems when snow and ice melt. In Antarctica, BC is sourced from research stations as well as from the weathering of parent rock. Most of the trace metals are transported there by the weathering of volcanic rocks. Cd and Cu are of anthropogenic origin, which apparently enter cryoconites during the transfer of contaminated soil and ground particles by wind. The nutrient content of cryoconites is closest to that of the contaminated soils of King George Island. It is currently impossible to create reliable models for the accumulation of BC on ice and snow surfaces. Further study of the qualitative and quantitative composition of BC in the atmosphere and on glaciers will contribute to the parametrization of the global carbon cycle as well as prevent water and soil pollution in the polar regions. Improving our knowledge of polar pollution is essential in this era of global change. Cryoconites found on the surface of glaciers are a secondary source of trace metals. When the edge of the glacier melts, the contaminated material is deposited in soil cover and marine sediments. Some trace metals tend to accumulate in biota and then be transported along the food chain. Thus, the importance of studying the migration, accumulation, and sources of trace metals in cryoconites is extremely important.

Author Contributions

B.M. performed the expedition with fieldwork and soil sampling; V.P. and E.A. wrote the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Grant of Russian Foundation for Basic Research No. No. 19-05-50107, 18-04-00900 and by the state task Russian Ministry of Education and Science № 0148-2019-0004.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Hirdman, D.; Sodemann, H.; Eckhardt, S.; Burkhart, J.F.; Jefferson, A.; Mefford, T.; Quinn, P.K.; Sharma, S.; Ström, J.; Stohl, A. Source identification of short-lived air pollutants in the Arctic using statistical analysis of measurement data and particle dispersion model output. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10, 669–693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Schnell, R.C. Arctic haze and the Arctic Gas and Aerosol Sampling Program (AGASP). Geophys. Resear. Lett. 1984, 11, 361–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Clarke, A.D.; Noone, K.J. Soot in the Arctic snowpack: A cause for perturbations in radiative transfer. Atmos. Environ. (1967) 1985, 19, 2045–2053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Quinn, P.K.; Bates, T.S.; Baum, E.; Bond, T.; Burkhart, J.F.; Fiore, A.M.; Flanner, M.; Garrett, T.J.; Koch, D.; McConnell, J.; et al. The Impact of Short-Lived Pollutants on Arctic Climate. AMAP Technical Report No. 1 (2008); Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP): Oslo, Norway, 2010; p. 32. [Google Scholar]
  5. AMAP. AMAP Assessment 2015: Black Carbon and Ozone as Arctic Climate Forcers; Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP): Oslo, Norway, 2015; p. 116. [Google Scholar]
  6. Derksen, C.; Brown, R. Spring snow cover extent reductions in the 2008–2012 period exceeding climate model projections. Geophys. Resear. Lett. 2012, 39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Brown, R.D.; Mote, P.W. The Response of Northern Hemisphere Snow Cover to a Changing Climate*. J. Clim. 2009, 22, 2124–2145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Stroeve, J.C.; Serreze, M.C.; Holland, M.M.; Kay, J.E.; Malanik, J.; Barrett, A.P. The Arctic’s rapidly shrinking sea ice cover: A research synthesis. Clim. Chang. 2012, 110, 1005–1027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Hansen, J.; Nazarenko, L. Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Bond, T.C.; Doherty, S.J.; Fahey, D.W.; Forster, P.M.; Berntsen, T.; DeAngelo, B.J.; Flanner, M.G.; Ghan, S.; Kärcher, B.; Koch, D.; et al. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment. J. Geophys. Resear. Atmos. 2013, 118, 5380–5552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. The Arctic Council. Expert Group on Black Carbon and Methane-Summary of Progress and Recommendations 2019; p. 88. Available online: https://globalmethane.org/challenge/arctic.html (accessed on 15 November 2020).
  12. Jacobson, M.Z. Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols. Nature 2001, 409, 695–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Brown, R.; Derksen, C.; Wang, L. A multi-data set analysis of variability and change in Arctic spring snow cover extent, 1967–2008. J. Geophys. Resear. Atmos. 2010, 115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Molina, M.; Zaelke, D.; Sarma, K.M.; Andersen, S.O.; Ramanathan, V.; Kaniaru, D. Reducing abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106, 20616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  15. Hegg, D.A.; Warren, S.G.; Grenfell, T.C.; Doherty, S.J.; Larson, T.V.; Clarke, A.D. Source Attribution of Black Carbon in Arctic Snow. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 4016–4021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Lamarque, J.F.; Bond, T.C.; Eyring, V.; Granier, C.; Heil, A.; Klimont, Z.; Lee, D.; Liousse, C.; Mieville, A.; Owen, B.; et al. Historical (1850–2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: Methodology and application. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10, 7017–7039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Tunved, P.; Ström, J.; Krejci, R. Arctic aerosol life cycle: Linking aerosol size distributions observed between 2000 and 2010 with air mass transport and precipitation at Zeppelin station, Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2013, 13, 3643–3660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Stier, P.; Seinfeld, J.H.; Kinne, S.; Feichter, J.; Boucher, O. Impact of nonabsorbing anthropogenic aerosols on clear-sky atmospheric absorption. J. Geophys. Resear. Atmos. 2006, 111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Warneke, C.; Bahreini, R.; Brioude, J.; Brock, C.A.; De Gouw, J.A.; Fahey, D.W.; Froyd, K.D.; Holloway, J.S.; Middlebrook, A.; Miller, L.; et al. Biomass burning in Siberia and Kazakhstan as an important source for haze over the Alaskan Arctic in April 2008. Geophys. Resear. Lett. 2009, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Stone, R.S.; Sharma, S.; Herber, A.; Eleftheriadis, K.; Nelson, D.W. A characterization of Arctic aerosols on the basis of aerosol optical depth and black carbon measurements. Elem. Sci. Antropocene 2014, 000027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Łokas, E.; Zaborska, A.; Kolicka, M.; Różycki, M.; Zawierucha, K. Accumulation of atmospheric radionuclides and heavy metals in cryoconite holes on an Arctic glacier. Chemosphere 2016, 160, 162–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Zwally, H.J.; Li, J.; Robbins, J.W.; Saba, J.L.; Yi, D.; Brenner, A.C. Mass gains of the Antarctic ice sheet exceed losses. J. Glaciol. 2017, 61, 1019–1036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Shepherd, A.; Ivins, E.R.; Geruo, A.; Barletta, V.R.; Bentley, M.J.; Bettadpur, S.; Briggs, K.H.; Bromwich, D.H.; Forsberg, R.; Galin, N.; et al. A Reconciled Estimate of Ice-Sheet Mass Balance. Science 2012, 338, 1183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Feldmann, J.; Levermann, A.; Mengel, M. Stabilizing the West Antarctic Ice Sheet by surface mass deposition. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaaw4132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Shepherd, A.; Ivins, E.; Rignot, E.; Smith, B.; Van den Broeke, M.; Velicogna, I.; Whitehouse, P.; Briggs, K.; Joughin, I.; Krinner, G.; et al. Mass balance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet from 1992 to 2017. Nature 2018, 558, 219–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Dutrieux, P.; Vaughan, D.G.; Corr, H.F.J.; Jenkins, A.; Holland, P.R.; Joughin, I.; Fleming, A.H. Pine Island glacier ice shelf melt distributed at kilometre scales. Cryosphere 2013, 7, 1543–1555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Dickens, W.A.; Kuhn, G.; Leng, M.J.; Graham, A.G.C.; Dowdeswell, J.A.; Meredith, M.P.; Hillenbrand, C.D.; Hodgson, D.A.; Roberts, S.J.; Sloane, H.; et al. Enhanced glacial discharge from the eastern Antarctic Peninsula since the 1700s associated with a positive Southern Annular Mode. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 14606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. Akilan, A.; Abdul Azeez, K.K.; Schuh, H.; Padhy, S.; Kumar Kotluri, S. Perturbations in atmospheric gaseous components over coastal Antarctica detected in GPS signals and its natural origin to volcanic eruption. Polar Sci. 2019, 19, 69–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Rignot, E.; Velicogna, I.; Van den Broeke, M.R.; Monaghan, A.; Lenaerts, J.T.M. Acceleration of the contribution of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets to sea level rise. Geophys. Resear. Lett. 2011, 38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Hara, K.; Sudo, K.; Ohnishi, T.; Osada, K.; Yabuki, M.; Shiobara, M.; Yamanouchi, T. Seasonal features and origins of carbonaceous aerosols at Syowa Station, coastal Antarctica. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2019, 19, 7817–7837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  31. Khan, A.L.; McMeeking, G.R.; Schwarz, J.P.; Xian, P.; Welch, K.A.; Berry Lyons, W.; McKnight, D.M. Near-Surface Refractory Black Carbon Observations in the Atmosphere and Snow in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, and Potential Impacts of Foehn Winds. J. Geophys. Resear. Atmos. 2018, 123, 2877–2887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Gogoi, M.M.; Babu, S.S.; Pandey, S.K.; Nair, V.S.; Vaishya, A.; Girach, I.A.; Koushik, N. Scavenging ratio of black carbon in the Arctic and the Antarctic. Polar Sci. 2018, 16, 10–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Selby, M.J. Antarctica: Soils, weathering processes and environment, I. B. Campbell and G. G. C. Claridge, (developments in soil science 16), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987. No. of pages: 368. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 1989, 14, 753–754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Singh, S.M.; Sharma, J.; Gawas-Sakhalkar, P.; Upadhyay, A.K.; Naik, S.; Pedneker, S.M.; Ravindra, R. Atmospheric deposition studies of heavy metals in Arctic by comparative analysis of lichens and cryoconite. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2013, 185, 1367–1376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Hong, S.; Lluberas, A.; Lee, G.; Park, J.K. Natural and Anthropogenic Heavy Metal Deposition to the Snow in King George Island, Antarctic Peninsula. Ocean Polar Resear. 2002, 24, 279–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Hans Wedepohl, K. The composition of the continental crust. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1995, 59, 1217–1232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Santos, I.R.; Silva-Filho, E.V.; Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; Albuquerque-Filho, M.R.; Campos, L.S. Heavy metal contamination in coastal sediments and soils near the Brazilian Antarctic Station, King George Island. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2005, 50, 185–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. De Lima Neto, E.; Guerra, M.B.B.; Thomazini, A.; Daher, M.; De Andrade, A.M.; Schaefer, C.E.G.R. Soil Contamination by Toxic Metals Near an Antarctic Refuge in Robert Island, Maritime Antarctica: A Monitoring Strategy. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2017, 228, 66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Casey, K.A.; Kaspari, S.D.; Skiles, S.M.; Kreutz, K.; Handley, M.J. The spectral and chemical measurement of pollutants on snow near South Pole, Antarctica. J. Geophys. Resear. Atmos. 2017, 122, 6592–6610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Baccolo, G.; Nastasi, M.; Massabò, D.; Clason, C.; Di Mauro, B.; Di Stefano, E.; Łokas, E.; Prati, P.; Previtali, E.; Takeuchi, N.; et al. Artificial and natural radionuclides in cryoconite as tracers of supraglacial dynamics: Insights from the Morteratsch glacier (Swiss Alps). Catena 2020, 191, 104577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Abakumov, E. Content of available forms of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus in ornithogenic and other soils of the Fildes Peninsula (King George Island, Western Antarctica). Biol. Commun. 2008, 63, 109–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Hegg, D.A.; Warren, S.G.; Grenfell, T.C.; Sarah, J.D.; Clarke, A.D. Sources of light-absorbing aerosol in arctic snow and their seasonal variation. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10, 10923–10938. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. ISO 11047:1998, Soil Quality—Determination of Cadmium, Cobalt, Copper, Lead, Manganese, Nickel and Zinc in Aqua Regia Extracts of Soil—Flame and Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometric Methods. 1998, p. 18. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/24010.html (accessed on 15 November 2020).
  44. ISO 14256-1:2003, Soil quality—Determination of nitrate, nitrite and ammonium in field moist soils by extraction with potassium chloride solution—Part 1: Manual method (ISO/TS 14256-1-2003:2003). 2003, p. 14. Available online: https://www.iso.org/standard/36706.html (accessed on 15 November 2020).
  45. 54650-2011, Determination of mobile phosphorus and potassium compounds by Kirsanov method modified by ClNAO. 2011, p. 9. Available online: http://docs.cntd.ru/document/gost-r-54650-2011 (accessed on 15 November 2020).
  46. Groenewerg, W.J.; Beunk, F. The petrography and geochemistry of the King George Island Supergroup and the Admiralty Bay Group volcanics, South Shetland Islands. Available online: http://polardigital.igme.es/handle/123456789/1612 (accessed on 15 November 2020).
  47. Amaro, E.; Padeiro, A.; Mão de Ferro, A.; Mota, A.M.; Leppe, M.; Verkulich, S.; Hughes, K.A.; Peter, H.-U.; Canário, J. Assessing trace element contamination in Fildes Peninsula (King George Island) and Ardley Island, Antarctic. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 97, 523–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Braga Bueno Guerra, M.; Schaefer, C.E.G.R.; De Freitas Rosa, P.; Simas, F.N.B.; Pereira, T.T.C.; Rodrigues Pereira-Filho, E. Heavy Metals Contamination in Century-Old Manmade Technosols of Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2011, 222, 91–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Celis, J.E.; Barra, R.; Espejo, W.; González-Acuña, D.; Jara, S. Trace Element Concentrations in Biotic Matrices of Gentoo Penguins (Pygoscelis Papua) and Coastal Soils from Different Locations of the Antarctic Peninsula. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2014, 226, 2266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Crockett, A.B. Background Levels of Metals in Soils, McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Environ. Monit. Assess. 1998, 50, 289–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Jiao, X.; Dong, Z.; Kang, S.; Li, Y.; Jiang, C.; Rostami, M. New insights into heavy metal elements deposition in the snowpacks of mountain glaciers in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2021, 207, 111228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Shaw, G.E. Evidence for a central Eurasian source area of Arctic haze in Alaska. Nature 1982, 299, 815–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Christner, B.C.; Kvitko, B.H.; Reeve, J.N. Molecular identification of Bacteria and Eukarya inhabiting an Antarctic cryoconite hole. Extremophiles 2003, 7, 177–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Singh, P.; Tsuji, M.; Singh, S.M.; Takeuchi, N. Contrasting Patterns of Microbial Communities in Glacier Cryoconite of Nepali Himalaya and Greenland, Arctic. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Liu, L.; Hsieh, C.; Kuo, M.; Chen, C.; Shau, Y.; Lui, H.; Yuan, C.; Arthur Chen, C. Evidence for Fossil Fuel PM1 Accumulation in Marine Biota. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 7, 4068–4078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Geosciences 10 00465 g001 550
Figure 1. The study area. Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica.
Figure 1. The study area. Fildes Peninsula, King George Island, Antarctica.
Geosciences 10 00465 g001
Geosciences 10 00465 g002 550
Figure 2. Studied cryoconites from Collins Ice Cap, King George Island, Antarctica.
Figure 2. Studied cryoconites from Collins Ice Cap, King George Island, Antarctica.
Geosciences 10 00465 g002
Geosciences 10 00465 g003 550
Figure 3. Principal component analysis (PCA) of studied trace metals from Collins Ice Cap.
Figure 3. Principal component analysis (PCA) of studied trace metals from Collins Ice Cap.
Geosciences 10 00465 g003
Table
Table 1. Description of the studied cryoconites.
Table 1. Description of the studied cryoconites.
Sample IDCoordinates (S/W)Elevation (m)Origin
B162°10′27.8″58°54′29.788Volcano
B262°10′27.3″58°54′19.8″103Volcano
B362°10′27.7″58°54′13.6″108Volcano
B462°10′26.2″58°54′10.6″114Volcano with biogenic material of ornitogenic origin
B562°9′18.4″58°54′20.6″121Volcano with biogenic material of ornitogenic origin
B662°9′15.8″58°54′9.3″130Volcano with biogenic material of ornitogenic origin
B762°9′9.5″58°54′23.1″118Volcano with biogenic material of ornitogenic origin
B862°9′5.6″58°54′30.4″99Volcano with biogenic material of ornitogenic origin
B962°9′6.9″58°54′34.5″98Volcano
B1062°9′21.8″58°54′48.1″92Volcano
Table
Table 2. The content of trace metals from the studied cryoconites (mg·kg−1).
Table 2. The content of trace metals from the studied cryoconites (mg·kg−1).
Sample IDCuPbZnCdNiCr
B16.853.1213.30.2586.334.20
B29.553.2716.60.2956.904.75
B37.561.0514.10.1506.012.38
B415.85.5323.00.3578.065.91
B520.46.3127.40.4098.495.00
B622.88.0830.90.4999.647.52
B719.26.6927.40.3598.474.79
B821.44.4828.60.3197.573.45
B911.31.5618.60.3106.345.39
B106.810.10210.90.2075.361.98
Standard deviation6.452.647.270.101.351.64
Coefficient of Variation, %45.565.834.531.4318.4236.23
Table
Table 3. Average content of trace metals in studied cryoconites in comparison with results of other studies (mg·kg−1).
Table 3. Average content of trace metals in studied cryoconites in comparison with results of other studies (mg·kg−1).
Sampling SiteCuPbZnCdNiCr
Cryoconites 114.164.0121.080.327.324.54
Soil from Trinity House Ruins 2107102148<0.237.972
Soils from Robert Island 347.87.343.9<0.240.452
Soil from Fildes Bay 43123150000.33--
Soil from O’Higgins Base 54222824854.32865
Sediments King George Island 69210.589-10.131
Vulcanic rock King George Island 71117.766-12.5-
1 Mean value of studied BC; 2 Guerra et al. [48]; 3 de Lima Neto et al. [38]; 4 Amaro et al. [47]; 5 Celis et al. [49]; 6 Santos et al. [37]; 7 Groeneweg and Beunk [46].
Table
Table 4. Spearmen’s correlation of the studied trace metals.
Table 4. Spearmen’s correlation of the studied trace metals.
p = 0.95CuPbZnCdNiCr
Cu10.870.990.840.900.59
Pb 10.890.900.980.76
Zn 10.850.920.64
Cd 10.920.88
Ni 10.78
Cr 1
Table
Table 5. The content of nutrients of black carbon (BC) from Collins Ice Cap.
Table 5. The content of nutrients of black carbon (BC) from Collins Ice Cap.
Sample IDC, %N, %C/NP2O5K2ON-NH4N-NO3
B10.080.061371961191
B20.780.127402241281
B300.020118159241
B43.920.537113752801
B55.440.619133953062
B65.230.747183993322
B75.320.569513181565
B83.940.468133791702
B90.150.082662401211
B100.040.051431711081
Standard deviation2.460.283.6332.7897.5599.311.25
Coefficient of variation, %99.0786.9471.2679.9534.1556.9473.62
Leptosols 17.120.581222381849461155
Technic Cryosol14.640.4111435465369
1 Abakumov [41].
Table
Table 6. Spearmen’s correlation of the studied nutrients.
Table 6. Spearmen’s correlation of the studied nutrients.
p = 0.95CNC/NP2O5K2ON-NH4N-NO3
C10.950.95−0.540.890.890.84
N 10.84−0.590.930.960.75
C/N −0.500.780.780.81
P2O5 1−0.69−0.74−0.24
K2O 10.970.70
N-NH4 10.63
N-NO3 1
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Polyakov, V.; Abakumov, E.; Mavlyudov, B. Black Carbon as a Source of Trace Elements and Nutrients in Ice Sheet of King George Island, Antarctica. Geosciences 2020, 10, 465. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110465

AMA Style

Polyakov V, Abakumov E, Mavlyudov B. Black Carbon as a Source of Trace Elements and Nutrients in Ice Sheet of King George Island, Antarctica. Geosciences. 2020; 10(11):465. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110465

Chicago/Turabian Style

Polyakov, Vyacheslav, Evgeny Abakumov, and Bulat Mavlyudov. 2020. "Black Carbon as a Source of Trace Elements and Nutrients in Ice Sheet of King George Island, Antarctica" Geosciences 10, no. 11: 465. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110465

APA Style

Polyakov, V., Abakumov, E., & Mavlyudov, B. (2020). Black Carbon as a Source of Trace Elements and Nutrients in Ice Sheet of King George Island, Antarctica. Geosciences, 10(11), 465. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110465

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop