Sixty Degrees of Solutions: Field Techniques for Human–Jaguar Coexistence
Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Site/Biome, Country | Number of Operators | Size and Type of Livestock | Size Hectares | Types of Interventions | Efficacy/Reductions in Losses |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Selva Lacandona, southern Mexico (lowland humid forest, with areas cleared for pastures) | Σ = 30 25 Ejidos 5 indigenous | Average cattle 90 Average sheep 50 | Average 44 ha | Night enclosures for sheep, electric-fenced maternity pastures for cattle, no hunting in ejidos, improved husbandry. | 97% reduction in losses of sheep via night enclosures 86% reduction in losses of vulnerable cattle classes (via electric fenced maternity pastures) |
Chaco, Paraguay (low stature dry forest with areas cleared for pastures, areas abutting semi-deciduous Chiquitania forests, and the Pantanal watershed) | 9 + private ranches | 1400–18,000, six ranches over 10,000 head (cattle) | 4000–45,60 ha, eight ranches over 10,000 ha | Electric lights, electric fences, bells on collars, strategic location water sources, donkeys as guard animals, no hunting, combinations. | Villalba et al. (2016) [58] included six ranches, including some under 1000 head, and others up to 38,627 ha and 17,500 head (Campo Grande), using electric lights for some, and combinations of six methods for others (electric lights, electric fences, husbandry, fence exclusion from forest edges, cleaner pastures, controlled birthing seasons, secure maternity pastures) yielded a 100% reduction in losses. More recently in Campo Grande, tests with donkeys yielded a 79% reduction in cattle losses. |
Llanos, Colombia (seasonally dry and flooded savanna–forest mosaic) | 22 ranches | 101–500 head cattle | Average 1370 ha | Electric-fenced pasture for mother cows and calves and for horses, electric-fenced night enclosures for vulnerable (young classes), electrical fenced barriers excluding cattle from forest and rivers/gallery, active in-person vigilance, strategic placement of pastures (close to house), strategic placement of water sources, Creole Sanmartinero cattle 1 bull/50 Cebu cows, partial ban on hunting of prey and on deforestation. | Fourteen ranches (64%) with a 100% reduction in losses, six (27%) with greater than or equal to 75% reduction in losses, one with a 67% reduction, and one with only 43% reduction. The latter two due to weak and inconsistent compliance with the anti-depredation techniques. Initially, Sanmartinero were vulnerable to depredation but over time became accustomed to ranch with zero losses. |
Tortuguero and Maquenque, Costa Rica (lowland humid forests with areas cleared for pastures) | 13 ranches | 520 | 67 ha | Electric fence on all ranches, and buffalo on four of them. | Electric fences eliminated (reduced by 100%) depredation on 12 (92%) of the ranches. One loss on one ranch, which is a 75% reduction from collective average losses annually. |
Yungas, Argentina (Andean forests with lower and mid elevations cleared for pastures, some higher natural grasslands) | 21 ranchers, community property, 10% edge of national park, | Σ 1300 cattle, some sheep, horses, mules, donkeys, pigs | Σ 80,000 ha in a nearly free-ranging system | Tests with 650 head cattle. Built fences for 16 pastures, four community pastures (12–15 ha), and 12 family pastures (~6 ha each). Used these for mothers with young, and animals under 3 years in age. The four larger community pastures were encircled with electric fence. Also, electric lights, bells, odorous collars, (judged highly effective), and combinations were used. | Electric fences yielded zero depredation (100% reduction in losses). Pastures with electric lights and near houses also had zero depredation, a 100% reduction in losses. Enclosure in potreros (with electric fence, without electric fence, with electric lights) eliminated losses. Losses were reduced but not eliminated by odorous collars or collars with lights and bells. Overall, losses were reduced by >50% by the pooled range of anti-depredation techniques. Simply stopping free-ranging reduced losses. |
Sonoran (desert scrub), Sierra Madre Occidental, Northern Mexico | 1 ranch | 400 head cattle | 7000 ha | Releasing and increasing natural prey (collared peccaries), ban on hunting. | A 50% reduction in depredation losses to jaguars. |
Bosawas Biosphere Reserve, Nicaragua (lowland humid forest with areas cleared for pastures) | 43 operators in communal titled indigenous territories | 80% 1–25 head cattle, 20% 26–100 head cattle, 2017–2019: 80–92% owned 1–10 pigs, 2017–2019: 8–20% owned 11–15 pigs | All under 100 ha, majority 2017–2019: 66–83% < 49.9 ha pastures | Improved husbandry and livestock control via improved nutrition (improved pastures, silvopastoral systems, protein banks), improved veterinarian care, better contained livestock excluded from forest (standard fences and live fences), kept closer to dwellings, enhanced vigilance, complete ban on hunting of some game species, partial ban on hunting of others, complete ban on deforestation. | In this rustic setting (two days from nearest roads) reduction in livestock losses through improved livestock management was complete with a 100% reduction in losses. |
Chiquitania-Chaco, Bolivia (savanna–forest mosaic, small amount cleared forest) | 1 | 300 buffalo, 50 Cebu cattle, 25 pigs, 20 horses, 20 sheep, 5 mules | 2994 ha | Increased proportion of buffalo to cattle, electric fence, night corrals/enclosures, with electric lights, strategic placement of nutritional supplements, complete ban on hunting, ban on deforestation, nature-based tourism. | Reduced losses since introduction of buffalo, less than 5/year, last year 1 horse and possibly 2 buffalo calves. Losses reduced, owner primarily attributes that to buffalo. |
French Guiana coastline, extension of lowland humid Amazon Forest (small clearings for pasture) | 4 | 80, 100, 250, 300 head of cattle | Average ~100 ha | Electric fences in 1 ha enclosures used for mothers and calves, or calves only. These constitute electrically fenced night enclosures, set a minimum of 100 m from forest. | Electric fences are potent deterrents, with a 98% reduction in losses where effectively deployed. This team had experimented some with electric lights and found their impact to be temporary/short term and less effective with jaguars already accustomed to taking livestock. |
Belize, multiple sites (lowland humid forest, small clearings for pasture) | 11 | Sheep and pigs (8,8, and 20 head), remainder were cattle 9–300 head | From less than 1 ha to 120 ha | Electric lights (7 properties), fencing (1 property), night enclosure (1 property) ultra-sonic deterrent (1 property), cowbells (3 properties). | Cow bells alone (2 cases) resulted in no further attacks, night enclosure with cow bells (1 case) resulted in no further attacks; in 6/7 cases, lights were judged effective, and the one that was not needed more fencing, though also in 2/7 there was no clear evidence that jaguars still frequent the area, with the same issue for the sonic deterrent (judged effective, but continued presence jaguars not confirmed). Overall, enclosures combined with lights or bells judged effective. |
Llanos. Venezuela (seasonally flooded savanna–forest mosaic, this project part of a silvo-pastoral agroforestry (emphasis forestry) system | 1 | 1200 head cattle 1200 milking buffalo | 13,897 ha | Emphasis on true silvopastoral system (livestock grazing in forest) in this system makes the complete separation of livestock and forest challenging. Anti-depredation strategies include portable electrified sheep-type night enclosures of ~1 ha, for high % of cattle emphasis on mothers and calves, and for 30% of buffalo, young (weaned) males and females of 1–2 years; tested lights in combination with electric fence night confinement; electric fence pastures of 5–10 ha, emphasis on mothers and calves, and strategically placed near guards; day and night active vigilance horseback and motorcycles; complete ban on hunting; complete ban on deforestation (other than planned extractive forestry); overall, tighter control of livestock. | Increasing livestock losses in 2017–2021 stimulated the initiation of anti-depredation strategies in this site. In 2022, installed electric fence maternity pastures, vigilance, night confinement cattle, and installation of lights decreased losses from 2021 of 8.7% cattle, 17.4% buffalo. In 2023, changes included cattle confinement in sheepfold electric fence with lights, night corrals, only daytime vigilance, and, for buffalo, night confinement in small pastures, 30% buffalo females, 1 year old males, with night and day vigilance. Cattle losses decreased by 5.35% and buffalo by 19.38% from 2022. Overall, there was a decrease of 13.52% in cattle losses, and 36.78% in buffalo losses from 2021, when the year with the highest levels of predation had been achieved. |
Iguacu, Brazil, Atlantic Forest | 32 farms and ranches with a variety of livestock, including cattle, horses, donkeys, sheep, pigs, | 2 head to >1400 head –mostly cattle, but also some pigs, horses, donkeys, and sheep | 2–1936 ha | Beef cattle: Electric lights, cow bells, Turere collars (lights on collars). Dairy cattle: Turere collars, electric lights, electric fence, one night enclosure, improvements in livestock management techniques (such as nutrition, sanitary, carcass disposal). | Out of 32 ranches—recurrence of depredation on only 9, (72% had a complete cessation of depredation). One of the nine owners did not follow guidance. In 8/9, the jaguar already “habituated” accustomed to invade and take, so methods did not work as well. |
Pantanal, Brazil, seasonally flooded savanna–forest mosaic (Instituto Homem Pantaneiro) | 1 | 30,000 head cattle, 200 head horses | 130,000 ha | Electrified night enclosures (mothers and calves), electric lights in pastures (mothers and calves), bells on cows, fenced off forested areas, complete ban on hunting, forested corridors maintained for wildlife. | Depredation losses in areas without electric fences 5.92 to 22.8 times greater than the areas with APS implemented/losses are higher in brushy overgrown pastures. |
Pantanal, Brazil, seasonally flooded savanna–forest mosaic (Fazenda Jofre Velho) | 1 | ~100 head cattle/year (varies slightly), 25–30 buffalo, 20–25 pigs, 15–20 horses | 9275 ha | Electrified night enclosures = primary current method, entire small cattle herd. Pantaneiro (criollo) bull’s offspring had marketing challenges. Buffalo breed (Murrah). Pantaneiro and buffalo deterred attacks, but final method is electrified night enclosures. Pigs are tightly enclosed, fed kitchen scraps. Complete ranch-wide ban on hunting. Ban on deforestation. Ecotourism. | Current and sustainable methods = electrified night enclosures for cattle, and for pigs, tight control/enclosures. Mortality rate by jaguars for cattle across four years = 2.7%. Counterfactual is average for area is ~10%. Estimated 50–67% reduction in losses to jaguar. Tight, enclosed management of pigs means losses to jaguar = not an issue. |
Pantanal, Brazil, seasonally flooded savanna–forest mosaic (Fazenda Ipiranga) | 1 | 2500 head cattle, 220 horses | 7200 ha | Electrified night enclosures, used (1) immediately pre-birth; (2) first two weeks of calves’ life; (3) between 5 pm and 5 am; otherwise, mother and calf are in pastures. This is a time-limited application of electrified night enclosures, combined with a ban on hunting and deforestation, and with a successful ecotourism business. | ADS reduced losses to jaguars 3/15–3/8 rate, or 20–37.5% what they were prior, indicating reductions in losses to jaguars of 63.5–80%, in the specific pastures and periods when the techniques were applied. Outside of these spatially and temporally limited bounds, additional losses occurred. However, impressed by success where deployed, the ranch owner has plans to expand deployments. |
Argentina Atlantic Forest | 3 cattle farms | 200–2500 cattle | 60–2500 ha | Electrified fences with solar panels. | A 100% reduction in depredation in 12, 8, and 6 years of continuous implementation. |
Country | Site Name and Source | Anti-Depredation Strategy (APS) Intervention Technique Applied | APS Investment USD | Losses Avoided USD | BENEFIT/COST RATIO 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brazil Northern Pantanal | Jofre Velho (This paper) | Electrically fenced night enclosure, including milking buffaloes and first three years with Pantaneiro bulls; prohibition of hunting and deforestation | 2680 | 4140 | 1.63 1a |
Brazil Northern Pantanal | Ipiranga (This paper) | Electrically fenced maternity corral; prohibition of hunting and deforestation | 4000 | 10,000 | 2.5 1b |
Colombia | Casanare Llanos 3 | Creole cattle (2 ranches # 1 and 9) | Ranch 1 = 2257 Ranch 9 = 7147 Average = 4702 | Ranch 1 = 26,080 Ranch 9 = 10,2500 Average = 64,290 | Ranch 1 = 11.55 Ranch 9 = 14.34 BEN.COST RATIO = 13.67 |
Colombia | Casanare Llanos 3 | Electrically fenced weaning paddocks (2 ranches, #2 and 10) | Ranch 2 = 1728 Ranch 10 = 1063 Average = 1395 | Ranch 2 = 4600 Ranch 10 = 2100 Average = 3350 | Ranch 2 = 2.66 Ranch 10 = 1.97 BEN.COST RATIO = 2.40 |
Colombia | Casanare Llanos 3 | Electrically fences maternity paddocks (6 ranches, # 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 16) | Ranch 3 = 1328 Ranch 4 = 133 Ranch 5 = 4518 Ranch 7 = 1927 Ranch 8 = 199 Ranch 16 = 3854 Average = 1993 | Ranch 3 = 3000 Ranch 4 = 2838 Ranch 5 = 1900 Ranch 7 = 1500 Ranch 8 = 4400 Ranch 16 = 1767 Average = 2567 | Ranch 3 = 2.25 Ranch 4 = 21.33 Ranch 5 = 0.00 Ranch 7 = 0.00 Ranch 8 = 22.11 Ranch 16 = 0.45 BEN. COST RATIO = 1.29 |
Colombia | Casanare Llanos 3 | Electrically fenced night enclosures (4 ranches # 6, 12, 14, and 15) | Ranch 6 = 67 Ranch 12 = 133 Ranch 14 = 266 Ranch 15 = 366 Average = 832 | Ranch 6 = 134 Ranch 12 = 480 Ranch 14 = 1280 Ranch 15 = 2320 Average = 4214 | Ranch 6 = 2.00 Ranch 12 = 3.6 Ranch 14 = 4.81 Ranch 15 = 6.33 BEN.COST RATIO = 5.06 |
Colombia | Casanare Llanos 3 | Electrically fenced riverine forest barriers (2 ranches #11 and 13) | Ranch 11 = 5290 Ranch 13 = 2116 Average = 3703 | Ranch 11 = 11,800 Ranch 13 = 4200 Average = 8000 | Ranch 11 = 2.23 Ranch 13 = 1.98 BEN.COST RATIO = 2.16 |
All Colombia | Casanare Llanos 3 | All 5 anti-depredation strategies were applied, and no hunting and no deforestation in all 16 ranches. | 16 Ranches Average = 2024 | 16 Ranches Average = 10,681 | 16 RANCHES BEN. COST RATIO = 5.28 |
Paraguay | Paraguay North-Central Chaco 4, 5 | LED Lights (3 Ranches #1, 2, and 3) No-wild-prey hunting policies | Ranch 1 = 800 Ranch 2 = 400 Ranch 3 = 400 Average = 533 | Ranch 1 = 4700 Ranch 2 = 1200 Ranch 3 = 7020 Average = 4307 | Ranch 1 = 5.87 Ranch 2 = 3.00 Ranch 3 = 17.55 BEN.COST RATIO = 8.08 |
Paraguay | Paraguay North-Central Chaco 4, 5 | LED LIGHTS + wlectrical fences, clean areas around pasture paddocks, clean night-sleeping paddocks, breeding seasons (3 Ranches # 4, 5, and 6). No-wild-prey hunting policies. | Ranch 4 = 1630 Ranch 5 = 1630 Ranch 6 = 1630 Average = 1630 | Ranch 4 = 2100 Ranch 5 = 2520 Ranch 6 = 4200 Average = 2940 | Ranch 4 = 1.29 Ranch 5 = 1.55 Ranch 6 = 2.58 BEN.COST RATIO = 1.80 |
All Paraguay | Paraguay North-Central Chaco 4, 5 | All anti-predation strategies applied, and no hunting in all 6 ranches | 6 Ranches Average = 1082 | 6 Ranches Average = 3623 | 6 Ranches BEN. COST RATIO = 3.35 |
All 24 ranches | Pantanal, Llanos, Chaco—Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay | All ranches and anti-depredation techniques pooled, calculating the 24-ranch average benefit–cost ratio. | 45.562/24 = 1898 | 206.779/24 = 8616 | 24 ranches average BEN. COST RATIOS = 4.54 |
Predation Mitigation Method | Level of Complexity and/or Investment | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Strategy Classification | Options | Low | Medium | High | |
lA. Improved husbandry | Nutrition, health, reproduction | Improved pastures, agroforestry systems are linked to exclusion of livestock from forest, cadaver clean up protocols. | Basic veterinary care, involving training and materials, supplementary salt, balanced minerals, adjustment to fit carrying capacity, improved pastures. | Advanced veterinary care, immunizations, artificial insemination for tightly controlled reproductive seasons, no longer than 4 months of calving | |
B. Physical, emphasis on protecting the most vulnerable ages/stages of livestock, including (with cattle) calving areas and successive period in which mothers are with young calves | Fences and night corrals | Fenced pastures with paddocks, no free roaming livestock, exclusion from forest. | Live fences, barbed wire fences, other materials, whether unconventional local materials or purchased, night enclosures without electric fence or lights. | Electric fences of relatively small scale and lower levels of investments (e.g., small pastures and maternities, small night enclosures) | Electric fences that require higher levels of investment (e.g., larger scale paddocks and pastures and larger-scale electrified night enclosures). Depending on farm size, all or part of it. |
Corrals, night enclosures, maternity paddocks, paddocks for young age animals (just weaned). | |||||
Barriers between livestock and forest, riparian, or otherwise. | |||||
Electric lights | On premises | Lights enclosing pastures and paddocks, lights on night corrals, and night enclosures | Motion-sensor LED lights, with or without sensor alarms. | ||
On animals | Collars with intermittent LED lights (with/without bells) | ||||
Auditory deterrents | On premises | Fire-works, pyrotechnics, butane gas-powered cannon | |||
On animals | Cowbells on reflective collars, with or without lights | ||||
Visual deterrents | Fladry on fences | Wind dancers or puppets | |||
C. Administration and Management | No hunting, no deforestation, no feral dogs, no dogs at all | Strategically located maternity pastures (clean and far away from forested areas), strategically located water and/or nutrition sources, water sources out of forested areas | Reintroduction of prey, jaguar and nature tourism, insurance and reward strategies for farmers and ranchers that comply with ADS, no hunting, and no deforestation, receive premium for lost animals | ||
D. Defense | Human vigilance | Day, night, both | Vigilance walking or horseback | Vigilance using tractors, motorcycles or boats, fireworks | |
Guard animals | Depredation resistant species (buffalo) and breeds (criollo) races, resistant species, or trained guard animals (guardian dogs that sleep with the animals), and, in some cases, donkeys. | Strategic placement of mature experienced resistant ages and stages with more vulnerable ones, or donkeys | Criollo cattle, trained dogs, camelids | Buffalo | |
E. Chemical | Collars | Collars with chemical deterrents (olfactory and taste) | |||
Deterrents | Other methods by chemical deterrents are delivered |
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Polisar, J.; Hoogesteijn, R.; Hoogesteijn, A.; Viana, D.F.P.; Chinchilla Valdiviezo, S.J.; Valderrama Vásquez, C.; Devlin, A.L.; Arias Herrera, R.J.; Babola, M.; Bauer, F.; et al. Sixty Degrees of Solutions: Field Techniques for Human–Jaguar Coexistence. Animals 2025, 15, 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091247
Polisar J, Hoogesteijn R, Hoogesteijn A, Viana DFP, Chinchilla Valdiviezo SJ, Valderrama Vásquez C, Devlin AL, Arias Herrera RJ, Babola M, Bauer F, et al. Sixty Degrees of Solutions: Field Techniques for Human–Jaguar Coexistence. Animals. 2025; 15(9):1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091247
Chicago/Turabian StylePolisar, John, Rafael Hoogesteijn, Almira Hoogesteijn, Diego Francis Passos Viana, Skarleth Johana Chinchilla Valdiviezo, Carlos Valderrama Vásquez, Allison Loretta Devlin, Ranni José Arias Herrera, Margaux Babola, Frederick Bauer, and et al. 2025. "Sixty Degrees of Solutions: Field Techniques for Human–Jaguar Coexistence" Animals 15, no. 9: 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091247
APA StylePolisar, J., Hoogesteijn, R., Hoogesteijn, A., Viana, D. F. P., Chinchilla Valdiviezo, S. J., Valderrama Vásquez, C., Devlin, A. L., Arias Herrera, R. J., Babola, M., Bauer, F., Cassaigne Guasco, I., Chang, C. Y., Corrales Gutiérrez, D., De la Torre, J. A., Del Toro-Orozco, W., Kotz, A., Larsen, D., Lodeiro Ocampo, N., Monzón, D., ... Ziller, A. (2025). Sixty Degrees of Solutions: Field Techniques for Human–Jaguar Coexistence. Animals, 15(9), 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091247