1. Introduction
Coffee production has achieved substantial increases and is expected to continue this rising trend. Thailand is the third-largest coffee producer in Asia [
1,
2]. Overall, 11,000 tons of Arabica coffee are produced in North Asia. During the processing of green beans, the skin, pulp, mucilage, and parchment are discarded as agricultural by-products, making up 55% of the total coffee [
2]. Therefore, the coffee production process produces many by-products, constituting waste that harms the environment. Coffee cherry pulp (CCP) is the by-product of the wet process. For every two tons of fresh cherry coffee that are processed, one ton of coffee pulp is produced [
3,
4]. CCP constitutes 40–50% of the coffee fruit’s weight and contains 4–12 g protein, 1–2 g lipids, and 45–89 g carbohydrates per 100 g of dry matter. It also includes compounds like pectin, tannins, and caffeine (0.12–0.26%), as well as phenolic acids such as caffeic, gallic, and chlorogenic acids [
5]. Moreover, CCP has a high content of bioactive compounds, especially polyphenols, which have antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiallergic, and anticancer activities [
3,
6]. Therefore, the extracts from CCP are a source of phytochemicals, including chlorogenic acids (CGA) and caffeine, which contribute to its beneficial properties [
7]. Machado et al. [
8] studied the chemical composition and bioactive potential of CCP and the results showed that CCP has CGA (220.56 mg/100 g) and caffeine (0.85 g/100 g) content. CGA is a well-known phenolic compound with antioxidant properties, while caffeine contributes to metabolic stimulation and other physiological effects [
9,
10].
These bioactive compounds can enhance animal health; for example, CGA improved growth performance, immunity, antioxidant status, and intestinal barrier function [
11,
12], alleviated oxidative stress and ameliorated hepatic inflammation [
13] in broilers, and also improved gut health and growth performance in weaned piglets [
14]. Moreover, caffeine supplementation increased body weight gain, decreased the feed conversion ratio (FCR), and improved blood biochemistry in broilers [
15]. There have been many studies on the use of CCP in animal feed. For instance, it can substitute up to 20% of conventional feed for livestock, including pigs and poultry, providing essential nutrients while lowering feed costs [
4,
16]. Donkoh et al. [
17] found that incorporating up to 2.5% CCP in chicken diets for 8 weeks was acceptable, while higher levels reduced weight gain. Recent studies by Antúnez et al. [
18] have shown that substituting up to 25% of wheat bran with extruded coffee pulp flour in broiler diets does not negatively impact performance and can improve certain performance metrics while maintaining intestinal health.
However, there is currently no research that explores the use of coffee cherry pulp extract (CCPE) as a dietary supplement in animal feed. This gap in the literature has prompted researchers to investigate the potential benefits of using CCPE in broiler chicken diets. This study aimed to evaluate its effects of CCPE on growth performance, serum biochemistry, carcass characteristics, meat quality, intestinal morphology, gut microbiota, and gene expression in broiler chickens. Thus, the addition of feed additives is a strategy to reduce animal feed costs. It can also improve feed efficiency in animals and replace the use of antibiotics in livestock farming.
4. Discussion
The incorporation of industrial and agricultural by-products as feed additives enhances the nutritional value of low-quality materials, thereby offering valuable feed supplements. This practice not only mitigates environmental impacts but also provides economic benefits to farmers [
31]. This study’s primary objective was to evaluate CCPE’s impact on broiler chickens’ production efficiency. CCPE is recognized for its antioxidant properties due to the presence of flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which are biologically active substances [
3]. Additionally, CCPE exhibits antiviral, antifungal, and antimicrobial properties, enhancing the surface area available for nutrient absorption in animals. This attribute facilitates efficient food assimilation, leading to improved growth performance and increased body weight in the animals [
32].
No irregularities were observed in the diets of broilers supplemented with CCPE throughout the 35-day experimental period. The findings indicate that various performance metrics, including final weight, ADG, ADFI, and FCR, were significantly improved in the CCPE supplementation groups at levels of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg. Specifically, the final weights, ADG, and ADFI were notably higher (
p < 0.05) with CCPE supplementation. Moreover, the 35-day average body weight of broilers in the antibiotic control group was no better than the control group, and similar results were observed by Yang et al. [
33] and Srinual et al. [
22]. Additionally, a reduction in FCR in the CCPE-supplemented groups suggests a potential enhancement of feed efficiency. According to Geremu et al. [
34], the bioactive compounds in coffee pulp by-products provide additional health benefits, such as polyphenols, which possess significant antioxidant and antibacterial properties. These compounds enhance the structural integrity of intestinal villi, facilitate nutrient absorption, and inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. Numerous studies have elucidated the role of phenolic compounds, which are the principal constituents of CCP, in enhancing chicken growth efficiency. These phenolic compounds are recognized for their potent antioxidant properties. Dietary supplementation with CGA has been documented to positively influence animal growth performance. For instance, Zhang et al. [
14] demonstrated that in a 28-day experimental period, supplementation with CGA at concentrations ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 g/kg resulted in a linear improvement in both body weight and ADG in piglets. Similarly, Zha et al. [
13] observed that the incorporation of CGA at 0.5 and 1.0 g/kg did not affect FCR but resulted in a linear increase in body weight, ADG, and ADFI. The observed enhancement of growth performance among poultry administered with CCPE can be partially ascribed to the concomitant improvement in antioxidant capacity. Additionally, the caffeine present in CCP exerts physiological effects on animals. Caffeine acts as an antagonist to A1 adenosine receptors in the hypothalamus, leading to appetite suppression and augmented energy use. However, high caffeine concentrations (28 mg/kg/day) have been reported to reduce plasma triiodothyronine levels, potentially impacting broiler chickens’ growth trajectories [
15,
35]. This study found that CCPE supplementation led to reduced total feed costs, increased revenue, and an improved net profit and benefit/cost ratio. The increased weight gain in the experimental groups, compared to the control, offset the reduced feed costs, thereby enhancing economic efficiency. Additionally, using coffee by-products helped reduce the cost associated with antibiotics as growth promoter.
The current study highlights the beneficial effects of CCPE supplementation on hematological parameters, specifically noting a reduction in TG levels and an increase in HDL. Bhandarkar et al. [
36] demonstrated that chlorogenic acid, when administered at a concentration of 0.005 g/kg for 45 days, led to decreased levels of blood lipids, including TC, TG, and LDL, while enhancing HDL levels. Additionally, Kamely et al. [
35] observed that caffeine levels influence TG concentrations, with a dosage of 0.05 g/kg resulting in a reduction in TG levels in broilers. Trigonelline, recognized for its antioxidant properties, mitigates endoplasmic reticulum-related stress and alleviates oxidative stress-induced damage in pancreatic cells and adipocytes. However, this study did not reveal significant variations in TC and LDL levels. Liver enzymes such as ALT, AST, and ALP are crucial indicators of hepatic function [
37]. The study indicated that the average ALT and AST levels in the CCPE group were more favorable compared to the control group, suggesting a potential hepatoprotective effect of CCPE. Elevated serum hepatic enzyme levels, often a consequence of hepatocyte membrane disruption, release intracellular contents and lead to a pronounced increase in liver enzyme concentrations. This increase may be attributed to hepatocellular damage associated with the detoxification process of bacterial and pathogen toxins [
37,
38].
The addition of CCPE at various concentrations did not significantly affect the overall quality of meat, while carcass weights increased significantly (
p < 0.05) by dietary CCPE 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg supplementation. Lipiński et al. [
39] reported that feed supplementation with polyphenols did not influence the carcass in broilers. On the other hand, Qaid et al. [
40] reported that
Rumex nervosus has phytochemical products, such as gallic acid (GA), which improves carcass weight in broilers. However, CCPE supplementation notably reduced drip loss in breast meat at both 24 and 48 h. Lipid oxidation, a process leading to rancid odors, off-flavors, discoloration, nutritional degradation, and reduced shelf life, also poses potential health risks to consumers [
41]. The observed reduction in lipid oxidation with CCPE supplementation suggests enhancement of the antioxidant properties of breast meat. This finding supports the hypothesis that bioactive compounds within CCP contribute significantly to improving the oxidative stability of meat products. Antioxidants are widely utilized to extend the shelf life of food products [
42]. Bergamaschi et al. [
43] reported the total phenolic content, chlorogenic acid, and caffeine levels in coffee extracts, all of which exhibit antioxidant capacities. Additionally, CCP has demonstrated significant antioxidant activity and free radical inhibition [
34]. Lipid peroxidation in meat results in decreased sensitivity to hydrolysis, impaired protein degradation, reduced water retention within myofibrils, and disruption of membrane integrity in muscle cells, ultimately leading to the loss of meat juice. A reduction in cooking loss, which indicates improved water retention, appears to correlate with an increase in muscle antioxidant capacity [
44].
Analysis of the intestinal microbiota revealed that supplementation with CCPE significantly reduced the abundance of pathogenic microorganisms within the gastrointestinal tract. Ashour et al. [
26] investigated the effects of green coffee powder supplementation in broiler chickens and observed that coffee constituents influence gut microbial communities. Specifically, the incidence of
E. coli and
Salmonella decreased with CCPE supplementation. Furthermore, increasing the concentration of CCPE in the feed reduced overall microbial load compared to the control group. Notably, CCPE supplementation at levels of 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg led to an increase in the population of
Lactobacillus spp. The antimicrobial efficacy of CCP can be attributed to several active components, including chlorogenic acid, polysaccharides, phenolic polymers, and caffeine. These constituents exhibit their bactericidal effects through multiple mechanisms, primarily by altering the membrane potential of bacterial cells and disrupting intracellular ATP homeostasis. The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria appears to be particularly susceptible to these effects, potentially rendering the cellular environment inhospitable for microbial proliferation.
Caffeine disrupts the lipid bilayer of microbial cell membranes, leading to cell death in
E. coli. Its antimicrobial action primarily involves altering membrane integrity, which increases permeability and causes intracellular leakage. Ibrahim et al. [
45] found that caffeine effectively inhibits
E. coli O157, with a 0.75% concentration reducing the bacterial population by 1.4 log CFU/mL and a 1.5% concentration achieving a reduction of over 3 log CFU/mL. Chlorogenic acid exerts its antimicrobial effects by enhancing the permeability of bacterial outer and plasma membranes, leading to cell death. It has shown activity against various bacterial species, including
E. coli and
Staphylococcus aureus. Kabir et al. [
46] demonstrated that chlorogenic acid, along with ferulic, isoferulic, benzoic, and hydroxybenzoic acids, specifically inhibited
E. coli IFO 3301.
Intestinal morphology is a crucial indicator of gastrointestinal health, encompassing factors such as the integrity of the intestinal barrier, the efficacy of nutrient digestion, and the absorptive capacity of the small intestine [
47,
48]. Supplementation with CGA has been shown to positively influence various morphological parameters of the intestine, including villus height, crypt depth, and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth. Liu et al. [
12] observed that administering CGA at a concentration of 0.125 g/kg improved the VH ratio in both the duodenum and jejunum. Liu et al. [
48] demonstrated that improvements in intestinal morphology, facilitated by CGA supplementation, led to enhanced growth performance. Additionally, CGA supplementation resulted in an increased villus height and VH:CD ratio, coupled with a reduction in ileal crypt depth in broilers subjected to oxidative stress. Liu et al. [
12] observed that administering CGA at a concentration of 0.125 g/kg improved the VH ratio in both the duodenum and the jejunum. Similarly, Liu et al. [
11] reported that a dosage of 1.0 g/kg CGA, when administered in conjunction with
Eimeria infection, resulted in villus heights in the jejunum and duodenum comparable to those observed in control groups fed a basal diet. Furthermore, Qosimah et al. [
49] found that coffee extract administered at doses of 500 and 1000 mg/kg significantly enhanced intestinal structural integrity and increased villus length. This effect was particularly helpful in alleviating damage caused by
Salmonella enteritidis bacterial infection. In addition, Liu et al. [
11] identified diamine oxidase [
41] and D-lactic acid levels in the bloodstream as reliable biomarkers for assessing intestinal permeability and barrier integrity. Supplementation with CGA has been shown to reduce diamine oxidase (DAO) levels, suggesting that CGA may improve growth and mitigate intestinal barrier damage by enhancing intestinal permeability and morphology in broiler chickens. The presence of CGA in coffee pulp appears to be adequate to effectuate significant improvements in intestinal morphology.
Regarding immune-related gene expression, dietary CCP supplementation resulted in notable downregulation of genes associated with proinflammatory cytokines, specifically IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Concurrently, there was a significant upregulation of genes related to antioxidant defense, including manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), catalase [
50], and glutathione peroxidase 1 (GSH-Px1). Activated macrophages are the principal source of proinflammatory cytokines, which are pivotal in the exacerbation of inflammatory responses. Extensive evidence underscores the involvement of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the pathogenesis of pathological pain [
51,
52]. CCP is rich in flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which are biologically active constituents with antioxidant properties. These antioxidants can modulate the activity of transcription factors involved in the immune response. They can also reduce the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and inhibit critical signaling pathways and enzymes integral to immunological processes [
53,
54]. Consequently, there is a reduction in the expression of cytokines that typically facilitate inflammation.